Biology4Kids.com Popular Sections Plants Plant Basics If you're not a microbe and you're not an animal, chances are you are a plant. There are loads of species of plants on Earth. Just as there is a system of classification for animals, there is also a system of classification for plants. Because plants adapt so well to any climate, scientists need a way to organize the hundreds of thousands of species. Images of Plants What Makes a Plant? What do they all have in common? The big thing that connects plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process that allows plants to take energy from the Sun and create sugars. Not all plants go through the process of photosynthesis. As with all of biology, there are exceptions and you may learn about plant species that are parasites. Plants also have cell walls. In the cells tutorials we explained that all cells have a membrane. Only plants have an additional cell wall made from cellulose. Let's look at photosynthesis. Plants are able to turn sunlight into energy but not directly. Plants are actually able to store energy in some chemical bonds that can be used later. Before we get into details, we'll explain that there are two processes on Earth: Photosynthesis and Respiration. Photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases that energy. It all starts with the Sun. Check out the tutorial on photosynthesis. Images of Plants Learning from Plants Not only do you see plants everywhere in the real world, but they are also all over the scientific world. Scientists use them for studies in genetics. A guy named Gregor Mendel used pea pods and their flowers to come up with some of the first ideas on how traits are passed from one generation of organism to another (genetics). We also use plants for food. Scientists are constantly developing new plants that are more resistant to disease and insects. Scientists also help create plants that grow faster and make more food. 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(c)copyright 1997-2012 Andrew Rader Studios, All rights reserved. Current Page: Biology4Kids.com | Plants | Overview __________________________________________________________________ ** Andrew Rader Studios does not monitor or review the content available at these web sites. They are paid advertisements and neither partners nor recommended web sites. 404: Page not found This error is generated when there was no web page with the name you specified at the web site. Troubleshooting suggestions: Ensure the page you are linking to exists in the correct folder. Check your file name for case sensitivity . Index.htm is not the same as index.htm! Temporarily disable any rewrite rules by renaming your .htaccess file if it exists. Trends in Plant Science * Press Room * Cell Symposia * Jobs * Login * Register * Alerts * Activate Online Access X User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Forgotten User Name or Password? Login Remember me on this computer [ ] ____________________ Search (*) Full Text ( ) Authors Advanced Search * Home * Online Now * Current Issue Archive For Authors Journal Information Change Journal * Aims and Scope * Permissions * Subscriptions * Advertising Information * Instructions for Authors * Presubmission Enquiries * Submit Manuscript * Editorial Enquiries Journals * AJHG * Biophysical Journal * Cancer Cell * Cell * Cell Host & Microbe * Cell Metabolism * Cell Reports * Cell Stem Cell * Chemistry & Biology * Current Biology * Developmental Cell * Immunity * Molecular Cell * Neuron * Stem Cell Reports * Structure Trends in... * Biochemical Sciences * Biotechnology * Cell Biology * Cognitive Sciences * Ecology & Evolution * Endocrinology & Metabolism * Genetics * Immunology * Microbiology * Molecular Medicine * Neurosciences * Parasitology * Pharmacological Sciences * Plant Science [S1360138512X0013X_cov150h.gif] cover popup January, 2013 Volume 18, Issue 1 X cover popup Volume 18, Issue 1 A key plant response to drought is the accumulation of specific sets of metabolites, which act as osmoprotectants, osmolytes, antioxidants and/or stress signals. An emerging question is: How do plants regulate metabolism to balance the ‘competing interests’ between metabolites during stress? Recent research connects primary sulfur metabolism, e.g. sulfate transport in the vasculature, its assimilation in leaves and the recycling of sulfur containing compounds, with the drought stress response. On pages 18–29 Barry J. Pogson and colleagues highlight key steps in sulfur metabolism that play significant roles in drought stress signaling and responses. The authors propose that a complex balancing act is required to coordinate primary and secondary sulfur metabolism during the drought stress response in plants. Cover design by Susanne C. Brink. NEW! Trends in Plant Science Impact Factor: 11.047* * *Source: 2011 Journal Citation Reports©, published by Thomson Reuters Editorial Team * Editor Susanne C. Brink * Executive Editor, General Biology Geoffrey North * Journal Manager Jan Kastelein * Journal Administrators Ria Otten Patrick Scheffmann Advisory Editorial Board * John F. Allen Eduardo Blumwald Jorge J. Casal Jeff Dangl Caroline Dean Richard A. Dixon Alisdair Fernie Wilhelm Gruissem Martin Heil Dirk Inzé Maarten Koornneef Anthony Larkum Ottoline Leyser Cathie Martin Sheila McCormick Sabeeha Merchant Ron Mittler Rebecca Mosher Jane Parker Michael Purugganan Eric Richards Jen Sheen Kazuo Shinozaki Sjef Smeekens Venkatesan Sundaresan Yong-Guan Zhu Stay Connected Facebook Logo Twitter Logo YouTube Logo RSS Feed free article Featured Article CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, and Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Abstract | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data [plant-science;sz=336x280;ord=71164?] Trends in Plant Science in the News Sound-based communication in plants The Conversation University World News Deccan Herald The West Australian The Sydney Morning Herald Plant power: The ultimate way to ‘go green’? ClimateWire U.S.News PysOrg Cell Press Discussions [Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado-108x160.png] [trends-in-ecology-evolution.jpg] Join the discussion on Ecological Neutral Theory; useful model or statement of ignorance? Cell Picture Show Cell Picture Show Plant Biology: They feed, they fight, and they reproduce; in many ways, plants are just like us. Take a peek inside the beautiful—and often complex—lives of plants. Cell Picture Show View more slideshows. Cell Picture Show thanks our sponsor. Recent Trends in Plant Science Special Issue [May2012SpecialIssue.gif] ‘Specificity of plant-enemy interactions’ May 2012 Find here an archive of Trends in Plant Science Special Issues. Presubmission Enquiries | Special Issues | Topic Collections | @TiPSc_news on Twitter | RSS Feeds | Email TOC Alerts __________________________________________________________________ Volume 18, Issue 1 | January 2013 Hilson TECHNIQUES & APPLICATIONS Gateway vectors for transformation of cereals Mansour Karimi, Dirk Inzé, Mieke Van Lijsebettens, Pierre Hilson Friml OPINION Origin and evolution of PIN auxin transporters in the green lineage Tom Viaene, Charles F. Delwiche, Stefan A. Rensing, Jiri Friml Bowman OPINION Detecting trends in tree growth: not so simple David M.J.S. Bowman, Roel J.W. Brienen, Emanuel Gloor, Oliver L. Phillips, Lynda D. Prior Pogson REVIEW (From the Cover) Balancing metabolites in drought: the sulfur assimilation conundrum Kai Xun Chan, Markus Wirtz, Su Yin Phua, Gonzalo M. Estavillo, Barry J. Pogson Sheen1 REVIEW FREE online CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen Finnegan REVIEW Grasses provide new insights into regulation of shoot branching Tesfamichael H. Kebrom, Wolfgang Spielmeyer, E. Jean Finnegan Scheller REVIEW Golgi-localized enzyme complexes for plant cell wall biosynthesis Ai Oikawa, Christian Have Lund, Yumiko Sakuragi, Henrik V. Scheller SpecialIssue TIPS Special issue: Specificity of plant–enemy interactions Volume 17, Issue 5 | May 2012 Individual plant and enemy species (or populations) are reciprocally interacting in a way that shapes their traits and evolution. This concept of specificity in plant–herbivore and plant–pathogen interactions is central to this special issue of Trends in Plant Science. Key questions are how plants manage to defend against diverse enemies; why plant enemies are specialized at all and if most current plant–enemy interactions are the result of a coevolutionary history. In order to address these questions, the collection of articles in this issue combines perspectives of the plant with those of its enemies. This issue also sees the launch of a new article format in the journal: TrendsTalk, which provides a perspective on the career of plant scientists. Listen to the accompanying Podcast » How plant defenses have shaped the fussy dining habits of insects, with Anurag Agrawal [EMBED] You can listen directly by clicking on the player above. For a complete list of Cell Press podcasts, you can subscribe via iTunes or view the archive. __________________________________________________________________ New article formats 2012 sees the launch of two new article formats in Trends in Plant Science: Scientific Life:TrendsTalk articles provide insight into individual scientific careers. Spotlight articles provide a forum for discussion of issues and advancements that are of broad significance to the plant science community. Topics will include future outlook essays that serve to introduce or encourage research in a new field and new insights on long-standing questions and debates. Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Jen Sheen Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Martin Heil Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Anurag Agrawal Spotlight Brassinosteroids tailor stomatal production to different environments Gustavo E. Gudesblat, Camilla Betti, and Eugenia Russinova Spotlight Towards understanding plant bioacoustics Monica Gagliano, Stefano Mancuso, and Daniel Robert Spotlight New foods for thought Kendal D. Hirschi __________________________________________________________________ Collections These collections contain Opinion and Review articles published in Trends in Plant Science within the past two years and are updated monthly. A valuable resource for students or researchers new to the field. Biotic Stress Abiotic Stress Genomics, Genetics and Molecular Evolution Cell Signalling and Gene Regulation Growth & Development Systems Biology Physiology & Metabolism Plant Biotechnology __________________________________________________________________ Most Read Articles RSS Icon Article Feed These are the five most downloaded papers for the 30 days preceding January 21, 2013. See full list of most read articles Phytoalexins in defense against pathogens Ishita Ahuja, Ralph Kissen, Atle M. Bones 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.11.002 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1181 kb); | Supplemental Data Cracking the elusive alignment hypothesis: the microtubule–cellulose synthase nexus unraveled Martin Bringmann, Benoit Landrein, Christian Schudoma, Olivier Hamant, Marie-Theres Hauser, Staffan Persson 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.003 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1935 kb); CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data Alternative splicing in plants – coming of age Naeem H. Syed, Maria Kalyna, Yamile Marquez, Andrea Barta, John W.S. Brown 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.001 Summary | Full Text | PDF (472 kb); Evolution of jasmonate and salicylate signal crosstalk Jennifer S. Thaler, Parris T. Humphrey, Noah K. Whiteman 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.02.010 Summary | Full Text | PDF (280 kb); [plant-science;pos=bottom;sz=728x90;ord=95551?] Cell Press Logo [Visit another Cell Press journal______] GO * Contact Us | * Terms and Conditions | * Privacy Policy | * SiteMap Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. skip page navigation Oregon State University Department of Horticulture Landscape Plants Images, Identification, and Information Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 Home Page __________________________________________________________________ Trying to identify a woody plant? See the new woody plant identification system. plant images __________________________________________________________________ This site was developed with partial financial support from the: Oregon Master Gardener Association and the J. Frank Schmidt Family Charitable Foundation __________________________________________________________________ This site contains images and information on over 1,700 landscape plants (mostly woody) listed in alphabetical order by genus, from Abelia to Zelkova. Because of the large number of plant entries, the site is divided into four "sub-sites" or "volumes". Volumes 1, 2 and 3 cover a separate portion of the alphabetical plant list, as shown below (or search the Common Name List). CAPTION: First letter of genus (or a Genus itself) Volume 1 A Abelia Abeliophyllum Abies Acca Acer Actinidia Adansonia Aden ium Adenocarpus Aesculus Ailanthus Akebia Albizia Alnus Amelanchier Amorpha Ampelopsis Andromeda Aralia Araucaria Arbutus Arctostaphylos Ar disis Aronia Artemisia Asimina Atriplex Aucuba Azara B Baccharis Bauhinia Berberis Betula Brachyglottis Buddleia Bumelia Buxus C Callicarpa Calluna Calocedrus Calycanthus Camellia Campsis Caragana Carissa Carnegiea Carpinus Carya Caryopteris Castanea Catalpa Cathaya Ceanothus Cedrus Celastrus Celtis Cephalanthus Cephalotaxus Cer atonia Cercidiphyllum Cercidium Cercis Cercocarpus Chaenomeles Chamaeba tiaria Chamaecyparis Chilopsis Chimonanthus Chionanthus *Chitalpa Choisya Chrysolepis Chrysothamnus Cinnamomum Cistus Cladrastis Clematis Clerodendrum Clethra Coleogyne Cornus Corylopsis Corylus Cotinus Cotoneaster Crataeg us Cryptomeria Cunninghamia *Cupressocyparisa Cupressus Cydonia Cytisus D Daboecia Daphne Daphniphyllum Dasiphora Davidia Deutzia Diospyros Dirca Disanthus Drimys E Edgeworthia Elaeagnus Encelia Enkianthus Ephedra Erica Eriob otrya Escallonia Eucalyptus Eucommia Euonymus Evodia Exochorda Volume 2 F Fagus *Fatshedera Fatsia Feijoa Ficus Firmiana Fontanesia Forsythia Fouquieria Fothergilla Fragaria Franklinia Fraxinus Fremontodend ron Fuchsia G Garrya Gaultheria Genista Ginkgo Gleditsia Grevillea Gymnocl adus H Hakea Halesia Hamamelis Hebe Hedera Heptacodium Heteromeles Hibiscus Hippophae Holodiscus Hovenia Hydrangea Hyp ericum I Iberis Idesia Ilex Illicium Itea J Jasminum Juglans Juniperus K Kalmia Kalopanax Kerria Kniphofia Koelreuteria Kolkwitzia L Laburnum Lagerstroemia Larix Larrea Laurus Lavatera Leucotho e Leycesteria Ligustrum Lindera Liquidambar Liriodendron Lithocarpus Lithodora Lonicera Loropetalum Luma M Maackia Maclura Magnolia Mahonia Malus Manglietia Maytenus Melaleuca Menziesia Metasequoia Microbiota Microcachrys Mitchella Morus Myrica Myrtus N Nandina Neviusia Nothofagus Nyssa O Oemleria Olea Olearia Oplopanaxa Osmanthus Ostrya Oxalis Ox ydendrum Volume 3 P Pachysandra Paeonia Parakmeria Parrotia Parrotiopsis Parthenocissus Passiflora Paulownia Paxistima Phellodendron Phil adelphus Phillyrea Photinia Physocarpus Picea Pieris Pinus Pistacia Pittosporum Platanus Platycarya Podocarpus Polygonum Polystichum Poncirus Populus Potentilla Prumnopitys Prunus Pseudolarix Pseu dotsuga Ptelea Pterocarya Pterostyrax Punica Purshia Pyracantha Pyrus Q Quercus Quillaja R Rhamnus Rhaphiolepis Rhododendron Rhodotypos Rhus Ribes Robinia Rosa Rosmarinus Rubus S Salix Sambucus Santolina Sapindus Sarcococca Sassafras Sciadopitys Sequoia Sequoiadendron Shepherdia Sideroxylon Simmondsia Skimmia Sophora Sorbus Spiraea Stachyurus Stewartia Styrax Symphoricarpos Sympl ocos Syringa T Taiwania Tamarix Taxodium Taxus Ternstroemia Tetradium Theve tia Thuja Thujopsis Tibouchina Tilia Toona Trachelospermum Trachyca rpus Tsuga U Ulex Ulmus Umbellularia V Vaccinium Vancouveria Viburnum Vinca Vitex Vitis W Waldsteinia Washingtonia Weigela Widdringtonia Wisteria Wolle mia X Xanthocyparis Y Yucca Z Zanthoxylum Zelkova Ziziphus The last volume covers 75 herbaceous annuals or perennials Volume 4 Herbaceous Ornamental Plants __________________________________________________________________ Some additional items: * You may search for a given plant using the Common Name List. * Plants with their names in green (for example, Acer circinatum [Vine Maple]) are native to Oregon, or have become naturalized in the State. To view the list of such woody plants select Native List. * Click here for information on USDA Hardiness Zones from the US National Arboretum. * Information on Sunset's Climate Zones for Oregon, Washington and Idaho. * Some background information on Scientific Plant Names * Glossary of Some Technical Terms * Plant Identification: Examining Leaves * References * Trying to identify an unkown woody plant? See the woody plant identification system * Oregon Master Gardener Training * It is possible to search this website using Google technology: (However, be aware that because of the way Google works recent items added to this website my not be found using this search method.) Google _______________________________ Google Search ( ) WWW (*) Oregon State Unvi., LANDSCAPE PLANTS __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 __________________________________________________________________ For comments, suggestions, or corrections concerning this site please contact Patrick Breen, CPN (Certified Plant Nerd), Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University breenp@hort.oregonstate.edu __________________________________________________________________ Want information about Oregon State University? Click on Oregon State University, or write Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-4501, USA. Phone Number: 1-541-737-1000 __________________________________________________________________ Most recent update: January 20, 2013 #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Flowering plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Flowering plants Temporal range: Early Cretaceous â Recent PreÐ Ð O S D C P T J K Pg N Magnolia virginiana Sweet Bay Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Angiospermae Lindley^[1] [P.D. Cantino & M.J. Donoghue]^[2] Clades Amborellaceae Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae * Ceratophyllaceae * Chloranthaceae * Eudicotyledoneae (eudicots) * Magnoliidae * Monocotyledoneae (monocots) Synonyms Anthophyta Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm., 1966 The flowering plants (angiosperms), also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies (derived characteristics). These characteristics include flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; they are fruiting plants, although more commonly referred to as flowering plants. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245â202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60â100 million years ago. Contents * 1 Angiosperm derived characteristics * 2 Evolution * 3 Classification + 3.1 History of classification + 3.2 Flowering plant diversity * 4 Vascular anatomy * 5 The flower, fruit, and seed + 5.1 Flowers + 5.2 Fertilization and embryogenesis + 5.3 Fruit and seed * 6 Economic importance * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 Further reading * 10 External links [edit] Angiosperm derived characteristics Bud of a pink rose * Flowers The flowers, which are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers aid angiosperms by enabling a wider range of adaptability and broadening the ecological niches open to them.^[clarification needed] This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems.^[citation needed] * Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also become modified through time^[clarification needed] to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.^[clarification needed] * Reduced male parts, three cells The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants.^[citation needed] The smaller pollen decreases the time^[clarification needed] from pollination â the pollen grain reaching the female plant â to fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination. The shorter time leads to angiosperm plants' setting seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms, which is a distinct evolutionary advantage.^[clarification needed] * Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes and controls.^[clarification needed] This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized, the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal. * Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches.^[clarification needed] * Endosperm In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans.^[citation needed] The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest. [edit] Evolution Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab apple) Further information: Evolutionary history of plants#Flowers Fossilized spores suggest that higher plants (embryophytes) have lived on the land for at least 475 million years.^[3] Early land plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Sellaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed. The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (males) of Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin.^[4] However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic (245â202 million years ago). A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.^[citation needed] The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of whole genome duplication events.^[5] These occurred at 319 million years ago and 192 million years ago respectively. The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period),^[6] while pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 million years BP. However, one study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria, traditionally considered a type of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or at least a close relative.^[7] In addition, circumstantial chemical evidence has been found for the existence of angiosperms as early as 250 million years ago. Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids.^[8]^[9] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are not known to have been flowering plants themselves. Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics ^[10]^[11] showed that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies ^[12] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.^[13] The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007 estimated that the division of the five most recent (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago.^[14] By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes, but large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the Cretaceous 65 millions years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Tertiary.^[15] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.^[16] Yet, many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Two bees on a flower head of Creeping Thistle, Cirsium arvense It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently. Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of specialization in both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). While many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.^[17] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary-inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.^[18] A few paleontologists have also come up with an idea that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the idea's biggest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or coping with predation by herbivores.^[citation needed] [edit] Classification Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae magnoliids Chloranthales monocots Ceratophyllum eudicots The phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III (2009).^[19] Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae monocots Chloranthales magnoliids Ceratophyllum eudicots Alternative phylogeny (2010)^[20] There are eight groups of living angiosperms: * Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia; * Nymphaeales, about 80 species,^[21] water lilies and Hydatellaceae; * Austrobaileyales, about 100 species^[21] of woody plants from various parts of the world; * Chloranthales, several dozen species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves; * Magnoliidae, about 9,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper; * Monocotyledonae, about 70,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leavesâfor example grasses, orchids, and palms; * Ceratophyllum, about 6 species^[21] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants; * Eudicotyledonae, about 175,000 species,^[21] characterized by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks. The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales.^[22] The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. The five other groups form the clade Mesangiospermae. The relationship between the three broadest of these groups (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots) remains unclear. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots.^[20] Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. [edit] History of classification From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek αγγείον, angeÃon (bottle, vessel) and ÏÏÎÏμα, (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carolus Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name Gymnosperms. From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. Auxanometer: Device for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today. In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003^[23] and 2009^[19] revisions, treat the flowering plants as a clade called angiosperms without a formal botanical name. However, a formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants form the Subclass Magnoliidae.^[24] The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as APG II in 2003^[23] and as APG III in 2009.^[19]^[25] Monocot (left) and dicot seedlings Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliacae) and Liliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon (plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor a reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (clade) but that the dicots do not (they are paraphyletic). Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species do form a monophyletic group, called the eudicots or tricolpates. Of the remaining dicot species, most belong to a third major clade known as the Magnoliidae, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of primitive species known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae. [edit] Flowering plant diversity A poster of twelve different species of flowers of the Asteraceae family The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.^[26]^[27]^[28] This compares to around 12,000 species of moss^[29] or 11,000 species of pteridophytes,^[30] showing that the flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II^[23] (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.^[19] The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5 clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e., lesser than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families. The 42 most-diverse of 443 families of flowering plants by species,^[31] in their APG circumscriptions, are 1. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species; 2. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950; 3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400; 4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150;^[32] 5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035; 6. Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175; 7. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735; 8. Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005; 9. Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625; 10. Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555; 11. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350; 12. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225; 13. Araceae (arum family): 4,025; 14. Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995; 15. Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870; 16. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780; 17. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710: 18. Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600; 19. Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500; 20. Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830; 21. Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740; 22. Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625; 23. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525; 24. Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500; 25. Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460; 26. Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380; 27. Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361; 28. Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220; 29. Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200; 30. Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060; 31. Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050; 32. Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025; 33. Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020; 34. Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815; 35. Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745; 36. Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700; 37. Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650; 38. Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600; 39. Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600; 40. Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580; 41. Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500; 42. Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450. Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families; Piperaceae, Lauraceae, and Annonaceae are magnoliid (acot); the others are eudicot. [edit] Vascular anatomy Cross-section of a stem of the angiosperm flax: 1. Pith, 2. Protoxylem, 3. Xylem I, 4. Phloem I, 5. Sclerenchyma (bast fibre), 6. Cortex, 7. Epidermis The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings. In the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases. [edit] The flower, fruit, and seed [edit] Flowers Main articles: Flower and Plant sexuality A collection of flowers forming an inflorescence The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence. There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls). The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self- and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. [edit] Fertilization and embryogenesis Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis Angiosperm life cycle Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into fruit and the ovule will develop into seed. [edit] Fruit and seed Main articles: Seed and Fruit The fruit of the Aesculus or Horse Chestnut tree As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently, the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry, and others. The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit. [edit] Economic importance Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) Agriculture is almost entirely dependent upon angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn â maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.). In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants is timber production. [edit] See also Portal icon Plants portal Portal icon Botany portal Portal icon Agriculture and Agronomy portal * List of garden plants * List of plants by common name * List of plant orders * List of systems of plant taxonomy [edit] References 1. ^ Lindley, J (1830). Introduction to the Natural System of Botany. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. xxxvi. 2. ^ Cantino, Philip D.; James A. Doyle, Sean W. Graham, Walter S. Judd, Richard G. Olmstead, Douglas E. 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JSTOR 1554864. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content//iapt/tax/2002/00000051/00000 003/art00009.> 27. ^ Scotland, R. W. & Wortley, A. H. (2003). "How many species of seed plants are there?". Taxon 52 (1): 101â104. doi:10.2307/3647306. JSTOR 3647306. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/000000 01/art00011. 28. ^ Govaerts, R.url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/ 00000003/art00016+(2003). "How many species of seed plants are there? â a response". Taxon 52 (3): 583â584. doi:10.2307/3647457. JSTOR 3647457.^[dead link] 29. ^ Goffinet, Bernard; William R. Buck (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification". Monographs in Systematic Botany (Missouri Botanical Garden Press) 98: 205â239. 30. ^ Raven, Peter H., Ray F. Evert, & Susan E. Eichhorn, 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th edition. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. 31. ^ Stevens, P.F. (2011). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)". http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html. 32. ^ "Kew Scientist 30 (October2006)". http://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf. [edit] Further reading * Cronquist, Arthur (1981). An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 0-231-03880-1. * Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55407-206-9. * Dilcher, D. (2000). "Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (13): 7030. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. * Simpson, M.G. Plant Systematics, 2nd Edition. Elsevier/Academic Press. 2010. * Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman. 2004. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Magnoliophyta Wikispecies has information related to: Magnoliophyta The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Magnoliophyta * Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Dr. Harmut H. Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster â Flowering Plant Systamatics * Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette. * Watson, L. and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. * Flowering plant at the Encyclopedia of Life This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. * v * t * e Botany Subdisciplines of botany * Ethnobotany * Paleobotany * Plant anatomy * Plant ecology * Plant evo-devo * Plant morphology * Plant physiology 1859-Martinique.web.jpg Plants * Evolutionary history of plants * Algae * Bryophyte * Pteridophyte * Gymnosperm * Angiosperm Plant parts * Flower * Fruit * Leaf * Meristem * Root * Stem * Stoma * Vascular tissue * Wood Plant cells * Cell wall * Chlorophyll * Chloroplast * Photosynthesis * Plant hormone * Plastid * Transpiration Plant reproduction * Alternation of generations * Gametophyte * Plant sexuality * Pollen * Pollination * Seed * Spore * Sporophyte Plant taxonomy * Botanical name * Botanical nomenclature * Herbarium * IAPT * ICN * Species Plantarum Glossaries * Glossary of botanical terms * Glossary of plant morphology * Category * Portal * v * t * e Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato Rhodophyta Cyanidiophyceae · Porphyridiophyceae · Compsopogonophyceae · Stylonematophyceae · Rhodellophyceae · Bangiophyceae · Florideophyceae (Hildenbrandiales, Acrochaetiales, Nemaliales, Batrachospermales, Corallinales, Gelidiales, Gracilariales, Ceramiales) Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis · Cyanophora · Gloeochaete Viridiplantae/ Plantae sensu stricto Chlorophyta/GA Prasinophyceae UTC clade: Ulvophyceae · Trebouxiophyceae · Chlorophyceae Streptophyta Charophyta/GA Charales · Coleochaetales · Desmidiales · Klebsormidiales · Mesostigmatales · Zygnematales Embryophyta/ Plantae sensu strictissimo Bryophytes (non-vascular) Marchantiophyta · Anthocerotophyta · Bryophyta "Moss" · Horneophytopsida Tracheophyta Lycopodiophyta Isoetopsida (Isoetales, Selaginellales) · Lycopodiopsida (Lycopodiales) Euphyllophyta Moniliformopses (Equisetopsida, Filicopsida, Psilotopsida) Spermatophyta: Gymnosperm (Pinophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta) · Magnoliophyta See also: list of plant orders Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flowering_plant&oldid=533330 678" Categories: * Angiosperms * Plant taxonomy * Plants * Pollination * Plant sexuality Hidden categories: * All articles with dead external links * Articles with dead external links from April 2012 * Articles with 'species' microformats * Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012 * All articles with unsourced statements * Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 * Articles needing additional references from April 2012 * All articles needing additional references * Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with no article parameter * Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * Afrikaans * اÙعربÙØ© * Aragonés * AzÉrbaycanca * বাà¦à¦²à¦¾ * Bân-lâm-gú * Basa Banyumasan * ÐаÑҡоÑÑÑа * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ (ÑаÑаÑкевÑÑа)â * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Cymraeg * Dansk * Deutsch * Dolnoserbski * Eesti * Îλληνικά * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Gaelg * Galego * íêµì´ * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Hornjoserbsce * Hrvatski * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * á¥áá áá£áá * Kreyòl ayisyen * Kurdî * Latina * LatvieÅ¡u * Lëtzebuergesch * Lietuvių * Lumbaart * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * മലയാളഠ* Bahasa Melayu * NÄhuatl * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Nordfriisk * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Occitan * ÐлÑк маÑий * Ù¾ÙØ¬Ø§Ø¨Û * Plattdüütsch * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Runa Simi * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Sicilianu * Simple English * SlovenÄina * SlovenÅ¡Äina * СÑпÑки / srpski * Srpskohrvatski / ÑÑпÑкоÑÑваÑÑки * Suomi * Svenska * Tagalog * தமிழ௠* à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * Lea faka-Tonga * Türkçe * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ارد٠* Vepsän kelâ * Tiếng Viá»t * ××Ö´××ש * Zazaki * ŽemaitÄÅ¡ka * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 16 January 2013 at 06:53. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Advertisement. EnchantedLearning.com is a user-supported site. As a bonus, site members have access to a banner-ad-free version of the site, with print-friendly pages. Click here to learn more. Join Enchanted Learning Site subscriptions last 12 months. Click here for more information on site membership. As low as $20.00/year (directly by Credit Card) Click Here to Subscribe by Credit Card Site members have access to the entire website with print-friendly pages and no ads. (Already a member? Click here.) Our subscribers' grade-level estimate for this page: 4th - 5th [labelsmall.GIF] Plant Anatomy: Label Me! Printout EnchantedLearning.com Plant Anatomy Go to Plant Printouts Tree Anatomy Tree Anatomy: Label Me! Printout peanut plant A plant is a member of the kingdom Plantae, a living organism that utilizes photosynthesis, a process in which energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy (food). Plants are at the base of the food web and are autotrophs (or producers - organisms that make their own food). Plants vary greatly in size, shape, and the type of environment in which they live. Structure and Function: Roots anchor the plant in the ground and absorb water and mineral nutrients from the ground. Leaves contain chloroplasts, in which photosynthesis occurs. Carbon dioxide is absorbed through pores in the leaves; oxygen is produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released. Plant cells have a supportive cellulose cell wall (unlike animal cells which lack cellulose). The following is a diagram of the external anatomy of a typical flowering plant: [anatomy.GIF] axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole. axillary bud - a bud that develops in the axil. flower - the reproductive unit of angiosperms. flower stalk - the structure that supports the flower. internode - the area of the stem between any two adjacent nodes. lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of the stem of a plant. leaf - an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most leaves are flat and contain chloroplasts; their main function is to convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis. node - the part of the stem of a plant from which a leaf, branch, or aerial root grows; each plant has many nodes. Label the two lower nodes (the first and second nodes) on the plant diagram. petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant. root - a root is a plant structure that obtains food and water from the soil, stores energy, and provides support for the plant. Most roots grow underground. root cap - a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the apical meristem (the actively growing region) of the root. stem - (also called the axis) is the main support of the plant. tap root - the main root of some plants; the tap root extends straight down under the plant. terminal bud - a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem. Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical meristem, consisting of cells that can divide indefinitely. Phyla: The phyla in the kingdom Plantae include: Ginkgophyta, Lycophyta (lower ferns like club mosses), Pterophyta (ferns), Psilophyta (whisk ferns), Anthophyta (flowering plants), Gnetophyta, Sphenophyta, Coniferophyta (conifers), Cycadophyta (cycads), Sphenophyta, and Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts, hornworts). fir Plant Printouts EnchantedLearning.com Botany and Paleobotany Dictionary yucca Plants A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Click on an underlined word for more information on that subject. 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Advertisement. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c)2000-2010 EnchantedLearning.com ------ How to cite a web page #7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 front page Index 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Search 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Copyright Printable version Search Search ____________________ GO logo INRA Partenaires-TOP Identify yourself * Home page * Sessions * Keynotes * Program / Guideline * Submission * Registration 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference 2012 home page 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference (20-24 August 2012) 20-24 August 2012 Centre Diocésain 133 Avenue République 63051 Clermont-Ferrand, France What is Plant Biomechanics ? Plant Biomechanics is the study of the structures and functions of biological systems from the plant phylum (Plantae) with the help of concepts and methods of mechanics [1-5] (....) Read more ( into a pdf file) The Plant Biomechanics International Conferences : Plant biomechanics is an expanding interdisciplinary field, at the interfaces of biology, mechanics, physics and engineering. Despite its broad range of studies, it has long been felt that the researchers dealing with biomechanics have a lot to share. The first Plant Biomechanics International Conference was organized in Montpellier (France) in 1994. The 2^nd PBMIC was held in 1997 in Reading (UK), the 3^rd in 2000, in Badenweiler (Germany), the 4^th in 2003 was in Lansing (MI USA), the 5^th in 2006 was in Stockholm (Sweden), the 6^th in 2009 was in Cayenne (FG) in South America Over the years, the Plant Biomechanics International Conference has become the central event of the Plant Biomechanics research community, as well as a unique place for interdisciplinary exchanges around the amazing features that Plants have evolved to sense, acclimate and adapt to the mechanical challenges they have been submitted to. Welcome to Plant-BioMech 2012 in Clermont–Ferrand ! On behalf of all the French Plant Biomechanics community and of our International Board , Scientific and Organizing Committees, we are thus pleased to invite you to Clermont-Ferrand (France) to participate in the 7^th Plant Biomechanics International Conference. In the centre of Europe's largest regional nature park (the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Nature Park) and in the historic and active city of Clermont-Ferrand, you will enjoy the interactive overview over the research on plant biomechanics and mechanobiology from all over the world. We are really looking forward to meet you there! Dr Bruno Moulia, Dr Meriem Fournier Chairs of PBMC 2012 News Poster award All the posters have been reviewed and rated by an award committee (members of IAB and session organizers). Each day, the two highest scoring posters according to the following criteria have been awarded. Read more Important Facts The REGISTRATION is CLOSED since July 15 2012 . To see the FINAL PROGRAM go to Program/Guideline Read more Pour les Francophones et le Grand Public La Biomécanique traite des effets physiques et biologiques des sollicitations mécaniques externes (vent, courants aquatiques) et internes (turgescence, pressions tissulaires) sur le développement et le fonctionnement des plantes Read more General Chairs Int. Advisory Board Scient. Committee Org. Committee Partners Accommodation Social Program Touristic Info Access Plan Restricted Access * cadenas Scientific committee space * cadenas Organizers space www.inra.fr © INRA 2011 Contact | Legal-notice * Skip to navigation (Press Enter). * Skip to main content (Press Enter). * + + About the Institute o Profile o Organization # Scientific Advisory Board # Board of Trustees o History o Scienctific Organizational Chart + Research o Scientific Departments # Department of Plant Developmental Biology @ Groups # Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics @ Groups # Department of Plant Microbe Interactions @ Research Highlights @ Groups @ Research Groups affiliated with the Department @ Computational Biology @ Fungal Genomes @ Are you interested in joining our research teams? # Department of Comparative Development and Genetics o Independent Research Groups o Groups A - Z + Graduates o IMPRS o PhDs + Postdocs + Services o Scientific Service Groups o General Service Groups o Childcare + Reports and Publications o Publications o Annual Reports o Yearbook + Public Outreach + News o Paul Schulze-Lefert was awarded an ERC advanced grant o Press Releases o Event Calender o News Archive + Contact + Intranet ____________________ Submit * Contact * Sitemap * Intranet * * Deutsch * Home Information for Students Guests Journalists Alumnis Job Opportunities Job Offers * Postdoctoral position on axillary meristem formation in barley December 18, 2012 * 14 Doctoral Studentships December 13, 2012 More Job opportunities in German Events Events * Characterizing the circadian clock in seasonally variable settings 23 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * Genetic and Genomic Dissection of Maize Root System Development 30 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * The genomic organization of virulence in the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum 06 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * title pending 13 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall News * Support of the MPIPZ International Max Planck Research School granted for another 6 years December 05, 2012 * European research council (ERC) awarded an ERC advanced grant to Paul Schulze-Lefert November 12, 2012 * Symposium Next Generation Plant Science 2012 November 07, 2012 Research News * Differences in the genomes of related plant pathogens August 12, 2012 * Bacterial community inside the plant root August 02, 2012 * An international consortium sequences the tomtato genome May 30, 2012 * Early flowering caused by faulty biological clock May 14, 2012 * Pod corn develops leaves in the inflorescences April 24, 2012 * Plants use mobile proteins to defend themselves against bacteria December 09, 2011 Profile The Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research conducts basic molecular biological research on plants with the goal of developing more efficient breeding techniques and environmentally sound plant protection strategies for industrial crops. [more] Teaser_image_horizontal Department of Plant Developmental Biology Plants spend their life in one position, and thrive in locations where they are exposed to a wide variety of environmental conditions. This versatility is possible because plants continuously monitor and respond to environmental stimuli such as light, temperature and the availability of nutrients. Such responses alter the growth habit and form of the plant adapting it to its particular environment. [more] Intro_dpt_koornneef_neu_322_191 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics The genetic diversity between plant species is huge as observed by the large differences in many traits. However also within species substantial genetic variation is present in nature or has been generated by breeders and researchers. Mildew_haustorium3_bearb_richard_322_jpg Department of Plant Microbe Interactions Research in the department of Plant Microbe Interactions engages in fundamental molecular processes underlying interactions between plants and pathogens. The innate immune system of plants and mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis have a central role in our discovery program. [more] Mt_hpage_322x191_160712 Department of Comparative Development and Genetics Research in the Department of Comparative Development and Genetics aims to attain a predictive understanding of how biological forms develop and diversify, by using a combination of genetics, biological imaging, genomics and computational modelling. To empower their work scientists in the Department developed Cardamine hirsuta- a small crucifer related to the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana- into a powerful genetic system. Comparative studies between these two species and other seed plants aids them in uncovering the mechanistic basis for plant diversity and helps them formulate general hypotheses about how morphology evolves. [more] (c) 2003-2013, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Muenchen * Imprint * Recommend * Print http://www.mpipz.mpg.de/2169/en loading content Skip to main content __________________________________________________________________ Cornell University Cornell University Animal Science SEARCH: ____________________ go (*) Animal Science ( ) Cornell more options __________________________________________________________________ Plants Poisonous to Livestock __________________________________________________________________ * Home Page * Search Database * Find:-by botanical name-by common name * Scientific & Common Name Equivalents * Toxic Agents * Commonly Affected Species * Medicinal Plants * FAQs * Other Sites Plants Poisonous to Livestock and other Animals This is a growing reference that includes plant images, pictures of affected animals and presentations concerning the botany, chemistry, toxicology, diagnosis and prevention of poisoning of animals by plants and other natural flora (fungi, etc.). [a_muscaria_s.jpg] IMPORTANT:Just because something is on the poisonous plants list doesn't mean it can't be a good food or feed, and just because it is absent from the list doesn't mean it is safe! Many original images were provided by Dr. Mary C. Smith of the Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine. Additional images, text and web pages by Dan Brown and staff. The students of Nutritional Toxicology (Animal Science 625) have also made large contributions through web pages created as term projects. The frequently asked questions is a compilation of some of the questions we have received via email over the years. These pages are maintained by the Animal Science Department at Cornell University as a reference only. We have no physicians on staff to answer one-on-one questions about specific plants or poisons, especially as they apply to humans. We suggest you contact your local state or regional poison control center. For information on who to call or email in your area, visit Poison Control and Prevention Center Directory. Of course, if you have someone who has collapsed or has trouble breathing, you should call 911 before searching for a poison control center. For questions regarding the accuracy of the content of these pages, contact Dan Brown . (c)2013 Cornell University | CALS Home | Animal Science Home | Contact Webmaster | #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Succulent plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with cactus; botanically cacti are succulents but not all succulents are cacti. Succulent plants, such as this Aloe, store water in their fleshy leaves In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents or sometimes fat plants, are plants having some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. Succulent plants may store water in various structures, such as leaves and stems. Some definitions also include roots, so that geophytes that survive unfavourable periods by dying back to underground storage organs may be regarded as succulents. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" is often used in a way which excludes plants that botanists would regard as succulents, such as cacti. Succulents are grown as ornamental plants because of their striking and unusual appearance. Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Appearance * 3 Habitat * 4 Evolution * 5 Families and genera * 6 See also * 7 References * 8 Bibliography * 9 External links [edit] Definition There are a number of somewhat different definitions of the term "succulent". One difference lies in whether or not roots are included in the parts of a plant which make it a succulent. Some authors include roots, as in the definition "plants in which the leaves, stem or roots have become more than usually fleshy by the development of water-storing tissue."^[1] Others exclude roots, as in the definition "a plant with thick, fleshy and swollen stems and/or leaves, adapted to dry environments".^[2] This difference affects the relationship between succulents and "geophytes" â plants that survive unfavourable seasons as a resting bud on an underground organ.^[3] These underground organs, such as bulbs, corms and tubers, are often fleshy with water-storing tissues. Thus if roots are included in the definition, many geophytes would be classed as succulents. Plants adapted to living in dry environments are termed "xerophytes"; thus succulents are often xerophytes. However, not all xerophytes are succulents, since there are other ways of adapting to a shortage of water, e.g. by developing small leaves which may roll up or having leathery rather than succulent leaves.^[4] Nor are all succulents xerophytes, since plants like Crassula helmsii are both succulent and aquatic.^[5] Those who grow succulents as a hobby use the term in a different way to botanists. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" regularly excludes cacti. For example, Jacobsen's three volume Handbook of Succulent Plants does not cover cacti,^[6] and "cacti and succulents" is the title or part of the title of many books covering the cultivation of these plants.^[7]^[8]^[9] However, in botanical terminology, cacti are succulents.^[1] Horticulturalists may also exclude other groups of plants, e.g. bromeliads.^[10] A practical, but unscientific, horticultural definition is "a succulent plant is any desert plant that a succulent plant collector wishes to grow".^[11] Such plants less often include geophytes (in which the swollen storage organ is wholly underground) but do include plants with a caudex,^[12] which is a swollen above-ground organ at soil level, formed from a stem, a root or both.^[3] A further difficulty is that plants are not either "succulent" or "non-succulent". In many genera and families there is a continuous sequence from plants with thin leaves and normal stems to those with very clearly thickened and fleshy leaves or stems, so that deciding what is a succulent is often arbitrary. Different sources may classify the same plant differently.^[13] [edit] Appearance A collection of succulent plants, including cacti The storage of water often gives succulent plants a more swollen or fleshy appearance than other plants, a characteristic known as succulence. In addition to succulence, succulent plants variously have other water-saving features. These may include: * Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to minimize water loss * absent, reduced, or cylindrical-to-spherical leaves * reduction in the number of stomata * stems as the main site of photosynthesis, rather than leaves * compact, reduced, cushion-like, columnar, or spherical growth form * ribs enabling rapid increases in plant volume and decreasing surface area exposed to the sun * waxy, hairy, or spiny outer surface to create a humid micro-habitat around the plant, which reduces air movement near the surface of the plant, and thereby reduces water loss and creates shade * roots very near the surface of the soil, so they are able to take up moisture from very small showers or even from heavy dew * ability to remain plump and full of water even with high internal temperatures (e.g. 52 °C/126 °F)^[14] * very impervious outer cuticle (skin)^[14] * mucilaginous substances, which retain water abundantly^[14] [edit] Habitat Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) Many succulents come from the dry areas of the tropics and subtropics, such as steppes, semi-desert, and desert. High temperatures and low precipitation force plants to collect and store water to survive long dry periods. Succulents also occur as epiphytes, "air plants", as such they have limited or no contact with the ground, and are dependent on their ability to store water. Succulents also occur as inhabitants of sea coasts and dry lakes, which are exposed to high levels of dissolved minerals that are deadly to many other plant species. [edit] Evolution Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) The best-known succulents are cacti (family: Cactaceae). Virtually all cacti are succulents, but not all succulents are cacti. A unique feature of cacti is the possession of areoles, structures from which spines and flowers are produced. To differentiate between these two basic types that seem so similar, but that are unrelated succulent plants, use of the terms, cactus or cacti, only should be used to describe succulents in the cactus family. Popular collection of these types of plants has led to many Old World plants becoming established in the wild in the New World, and vice versa. [edit] Families and genera This section includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but the sources of this section remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2012) Apocynaceae: Pachypodium lealii, stem succulent Asphodelaceae: Haworthia arachnoidea, leaf succulent Cactaceae: Rebutia muscula, stem succulent Crassulaceae: Crassula ovata, stem and leaf succulent Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia obesa ssp. symmetrica, stem succulent Cylindropuntia imbricata: stem, woody succulent Malvaceae: Adansonia digitata, stem succulent Moringaceae: Moringa ovalifolia, stem succulent Nolinaceae: Beaucarnea recurvata, stem succulent Asparagaceae: Dracaena draco, stem succulent Euphorbia resinifera Plant families and genera in which succulent species occur are listed below. Order Alismatales * Araceae: Zamioculcas Order Apiales * Apiaceae: Steganotaenia * Araliaceae: Cussonia Order Asparagales * Amaryllidaceae (geophytes): Ammocharis, Apodolirion, Boophone, Brunsvigia, Crinum, Crossyne, Cryptostephanus, Cyrtanthus, Gethyllis, Habranthus, Haemanthus, Hessea, Nerine, Pancratium, Rauhia, Scadoxus, Strumaria, Zephyranthes, * Asparagaceae + subfamily Agavoideae: Agave, Beschorneria, Chlorophytum, Furcraea, Hesperaloe, Hesperoyucca, Yucca + subfamily Asparagoideae: Myrsiphyllum (now Asparagus) + subfamily Lomandroideae: Cordyline, + subfamily Nolinoideae: Beaucarnea, Calibanus, Dasylirion, Dracaena (plant), Nolina, Sansevieria,Eriospermum (geophyte) + subfamily Scilloideae (geophytes, a few succulent geophytes): Albuca, Bowiea, Daubenya, Dipcadi, Drimia, Drimiopsis, Eucomis, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Ledebouria, Litanthus, Massonia, Merwilla, Namophila, Ornithogalum, Polyxena, Pseudogaltonia, Pseudoprospero, Resnova, Rhadamanthus, Rhodocodon, Schizobasis, Schizocarphus, Spetaea, Urginea, Veltheimia, Whiteheadia * Doryanthaceae: Doryanthes * Hypoxidaceae (geophytes): Empodium, Hypoxis, Pauridia, Saniella, Spiloxene * Iridaceae (geophytes): Babiana, Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, Devia, Dierama, Dietes, Duthiastrum, Ferraria, Freesia, Geissorhiza, Gladiolus, Hesperantha, Ixia, Lapeirousia, Melasphaerula, Micranthus, Moraea, Pillansia, Radinosiphon, Romulea, Sparaxis, Syringodea, Thereianthus, Tritonia, Tritoniopsis, Watsonia, Xenoscapa * Orchidaceae (succulents) Acampe, Aerangis, Ansellia, Bolusiella, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Cyrtorchis, Oberonia, Polystachya, Tridactyle, Vanilla (succulent geophytes) Eulophia, Liparis, Oeceoclades (geophytes) Acroliphia, Bartholina, Bonatea, Brachycorythis, Brownleea, Centrostigma, Ceratandra, Corycium, Cynorkis, Didymoplexis, Disa, Disperis, Dracomonticola, Eulophia, Evotella, Gastrodia, Habernaria, Holothrix, Huttonaea, Neobolusia, Nervilia, Plicosepalus, Pachites, Platycoryne * + subfamily Epidendroideae Phalaenopsis * Xanthorrheaceae Xanthorrhoea + subfamily Asphodelaceae: Aloe (succulents and succulent geophytes), Astroloba, x Astroworthia, Bulbine (succulent geophytes, succulents, and geophytes), Bulbinella (geophyte), Chortolirion (succulent geophytes), Gasteria, Haworthia, Poellnitzia, Trachyandra (succulent geophytes and succulents), Order Asterales * Asteraceae: Arctotheca, Baeriopsis, Cadiscus, Chrysanthemoides, Coulterella, Crassocephalum, Didelta, Emilia, Eremothamnus, Gymnodiscus, Gynura, Hillardiella (geophyte), Lopholaena, Monoculus, Nidorella, Osteospermum, Othonna (succulents and succulent geophytes), Phaneroglossa, Poecilolepis, Polyachyrus, Pteronia, Senecio, Solanecio,Tripteris * Campanulaceae: Brighamia Order Brassicales * Brassicaceae: Heliophila, Lepidium * Capparidaceae: Maerua * Caricaceae: Carica, Jacarathia * Moringaceae: Moringa Order Caryophyllales * Aizoaceae: Corbichonia, Gisekia, Herreanthus, Limeum, Ophthalmophyllum, Saphesia + subfamily Aizooideae: Acrosanthes, Aizoanthemum, Aizoon, Galenia, Gunniopsis, Plinthus, Tetragonia + subfamily Mesembryanthemoideae (syn. Mesembryanthemaceae^[15]): Amoebophyllum (non-current), Aptenia, Aridaria, Aspazoma, Berrisfordia (non-current), Brownanthus, Calamophyllum, Caulipsilon, Dactylopsis,Ectotropis (non-current), Eurystigma (non-current), Halenbergia (non-current),Hameria, Hartmanthus, Herrea (non-current), Herreanthus (now Conophytum), Hydrodea (non-current), Hymenogyne, Kensitia (non-current),Marlothistela, Maughaniella (non-current), Mesembryanthemum, Micropterum (non-current), Mimetophytum(non-current), Neorhine (non-current), Nycteranthus (non-current), Pherelobus (non-current), Phiambolia, Phyllobolus, Platythyra (non-current), Prenia, Psicaulon, Ruschiella, Sarozona,Sceletium, Semnanthe (now Erepsia), Sphalmanthus (non-current),Synaptophyllum + subfamily Ruschioideae: o tribe Apatesieae: Apatesia, Carpanthea, Caryotophora, Conicosia, Hymenogyne, Saphesia, Skiatophytum o tribe Dorotheantheae: Aethephyllum Cleretum Dorotheanthus o tribe Ruschiae: Acrodon, Aloinopsis, Amphibolia, Antegibbaeum, Antimima, Arenifera, Argyroderma, Astridia, Bergeranthus, Bijlia, Braunsia, Brianhuntleya, Carpobrotus, Carruanthus, Cephalophyllum, Cerochlamys, Chasmatophyllum, Cheiridopsis, Circandra, Conophytum, Corpuscularia, Cylindrophyllum, Delosperma, Dicrocaulon, Didymaotus, Dinteranthus, Diplosoma, Disphyma, Dracophilus, Drosanthemum, Eberlanzia, Ebracteola, Enarganthe, Erepsia, Esterhuysenia, Faucaria, Fenestraria, Frithia, Gibbaeum, Glottiphyllum, Hallianthus, Hereroa, Ihlenfeldtia, Imitaria, Jacobsenia, Jensenobotrya, Jordaaniella, Juttadinteria, Khadia, Lampranthus, Lapidaria (plant), Leipoldtia, Lithops, Machairophyllum, Malephora, Mestoklema, Meyerophytum, Mitrophyllum, Monilaria, Mossia, Muiria, Namaquanthus, Namibia, Nananthus, Nelia, Neohenricia, Octopoma, Odontophorus (plant), Oophytum, Ophthalmophyllum, Orthopterum, Oscularia, Ottosonderia, Pleiospilos, Polymita, Psammophora, Rabiea, Rhinephyllum, Rhombophyllum, Ruschia, Ruschianthemum, Ruschianthus, Schlechteranthus, Schwantesia, Scopelogena, Smicrostigma, Stayneria, Stoeberia, Stomatium Tanquana Titanopsis, Trichodiadema, Vanheerdea, Vanzijlia, Vlokia, Wooleya, Zeuktophyllum + subfamily Sesuvioideae: Cypselea, Sesuvium, Trianthema, Tribulocarpus, Zaleya * Amaranthaceae: + subfamily Amaranthoideae: Arthraerva + subfamily Chenopodiaceae^[16]: Atriplex, Chenopodium, Dissocarpus, Einadia, Enchylaena, Eremophea, Halopeplis, Maireana, Malacocera, Neobassia, Osteocarpum, Rhagodia, Roycea, Halosarcia, Salicornia, Salsola, Sarcocornia, Sclerochlamys, Sclerolaena, Sueda, Tecticornia, Threlkeldia * Basellaceae: Anredera, Basella * Cactaceae: Acanthocalycium, Acanthocereus, Ariocarpus, Armatocereus, Arrojadoa, Arthrocereus, Astrophytum, Austrocactus, Aztekium, Bergerocactus, Blossfeldia, Brachycereus, Browningia, Brasilicereus, Calymmanthium, Carnegiea, Cephalocereus, Cephalocleistocactus, Cereus, Cintia, Cipocereus, Cleistocactus, Coleocephalocereus, Copiapoa, Corryocactus, Coryphantha, Dendrocereus, Denmoza, Discocactus, Disocactus, Echinocactus, Echinocereus, Echinopsis, Epiphyllum, Epithelantha, Eriosyce, Escobaria, Escontria, Espostoa, Espostoopsis, Eulychnia, Facheiroa, Ferocactus, Frailea, Geohintonia, Gymnocalycium, Haageocereus, Harrisia, Hatiora, Hylocereus, Jasminocereus, Lasiocereus, Leocereus, Lepismium, Leptocereus, Leuchtenbergia, Lophophora, Maihuenia, Malacocarpus, Mammillaria, Mammilloydia, Matucana, Melocactus, Micranthocereus, Mila, Monvillea, Myrtillocactus, Neobuxbaumia, Neolloydia, Neoraimondia, Neowerdermannia, Obregonia, Opuntia, Oreocereus, Oroya, Ortegocactus, Pachycereus, Parodia, Pediocactus, Pelecyphora, Peniocereus, Pereskia, Pereskiopsis, Pilosocereus, Polaskia, Praecereus, Pseudoacanthocereus, Pseudorhipsalis, Pterocactus, Pygmaeocereus, Quiabentia, Rauhocereus, Rebutia, Rhipsalis, Samaipaticereus, Schlumbergera, Sclerocactus, Selenicereus, Stenocactus, Stenocereus, Stephanocereus, Stetsonia, Strombocactus, Tacinga, Thelocactus,Trichocereus Turbinicarpus, Uebelmannia, Weberbauerocereus, Weberocereus, Yungasocereus * Didiereaceae: Alluaudia, Alluaudiopsis, Decaria, Didierea * Molluginaceae: Hypertelis * Phytolaccaceae: Phytolacca * Portulacaceae: Amphipetalum, Anacampseros, Avonia, Calyptrotheca, Ceraria, Cistanthe, Calandrinia, Dendroportulaca, Grahamia, Lewisia, Parakeelya (this name is not accepted by the Australian State and National Herbaria),^[17] Portulaca, Portulacaria, Schreiteria, Talinella, Talinum Order Commelinales * Commelinaceae: Aneilema, Callisia, Cyanotis, Tradescantia, Tripogandra Order Cornales * Loasaceae: Schismocarpus Order Cucurbitales * Begoniaceae: Begonia * Cucurbitaceae: Acanthosicyos, Apodanthera, Brandegea, Cephalopentandra, Ceratosanthes, Citrullus, Coccinia, Corallocarpus, Cucumella, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Cyclantheropsis, Dactyliandra, Dendrosicyos, Doyera, Eureindra, Fevillea, Gerrandanthus, Gynostemma, Halosicyos, Ibervilla, Kedostris, Lagenaria, Marah, Momordica, Neoalsomitra, Odosicyos, Parasicyos, Syrigia, Telfairia, Trochomeria, Trochomeriopsis, Tumamoca, Xerosicyos, Zehneria, Zygosicyos Order Diascoreales * Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea (geophytic succulent) Order Ericales * Balsaminaceae: Impatiens * Ericaceae: Sphyrospermum * Fouquieriaceae: Fouquieria Order Fabales * Fabaceae: Delonix, Dolichos, Erythrina, Lotononis, Neorautanenia, Pachyrhizus, Tylosema Order Gentianales * Apocynaceae: Adenium, Mandevilla, Pachypodium, Plumeria + subfamily Asclepiadoideae (syn. Asclepiadaceae): Absolmsia, Australluma, Aspidoglossum, Aspidonepsis, Baynesia, Brachystelma, Ceropegia, Chlorocyathus, Cibirhiza, Cordylogyne, Cynanchum, Dischidia, Dischidiopsis, Duvaliandra, Eustegia, Fanninia, Fockea, Glossostelma, Hoya, Ischnolepis, Lavrania, Marsdenia, Miraglossum, Odontostelma, Ophionella, Orbeanthus, Pachycarpus, Parapodium (plant), Periglossum, Petopentia, Raphionacme (geophyte), Riocreuxia, Sarcorrhiza, Schizoglossum, Schlechterella, Stathmostelma, Stenostelma, Stomatostemma, Trachycalymma, Trichocaulon, Tylophora, Woodia, Xysmalobium o tribe Asclepiadeae: # subtribe Asclepiadne: Asclepias, # subtribe Cynanchinae: Sarcostemma, # subtribe Gonolobinae: Matelea, o tribe Maxillarieae: # subtribe Lycastinae: Rudolfiella o tribe Stapeliae: Angolluma, Caralluma, Desmidorchis, Duvalia, Echidnopsis, Edithcolea, Frerea, Hoodia, Huernia, Huerniopsis, Larryleachia, Notechidnopsis, Orbea (plant), Orbeopsis, Piaranthus, Pachycymbium, Pectinaria, Pseudolithos, Pseudopectinaria, Quaqua, Rhytidocaulon, Stapelia, Stapelianthus, Stapeliopsis, Tavaresia, Tridentea, Tromotriche, Whitesloanea + subfamily Periplocoideae: o tribe Cryptolepideae: Cryptolepis * Rubiaceae: Anthorrhiza, Anthospermum, Hydnophythum, Hydrophylax, Myrmecodia, Myrmephythum, Phylohydrax, Squamellaria Order Geraniales * Geraniaceae: Monsonia, Pelargonium (succulents and geophytes), Sarcocaulon Order Lamiales * Gesneriaceae: Aeschynanthus, Alsobia, Chirita, Codonanthe, Columnea, Nematanthus, Sinningia, Streptocarpus * Lamiaceae: Aeollanthus, Dauphinea, Perrierastrum, Plectranthus, Rotheca, Solenostemon, Tetradenia, Thorncroftia * Lentibulariaceae * Pedaliaceae: Holubia, Pterodiscus, Sesamothamnus, Uncarina Order Malpighiales * Euphorbiaceae: Cnidoscolus, Euphorbia, Jatropha, Monadenium, Pedilanthus, Phyllanthus, Synadenium * Passifloraceae: Adenia * Phyllanthaceae: Phyllanthus Order Malvales * Cochlospermaceae * Malvaceae: Adansonia, Cavanillesia, Ceiba, Pseudobombax * + subgroup Sterculiaceae: Brachychiton, Sterculia Order Myrtales * Melastomataceae: Medinilla Order Oxalidales * Oxalidaceae (geophytes): Oxalis Order Piperales * Piperaceae: Peperomia Order Poales * Bromeliaceae: Abromeitiella, Aechmea, Ananas, Catopsis, Connellia, Dyckia, Hechtia, Neoregelia, Puya (genus), Tillandsia, Vriesea * Poaceae: Dregeochloa^[18] Order Ranunculales * Menispermaceae: Chasmanthera, Stephania, Tinospora Order Rosales * Moraceae: Dorstenia, Ficus * Urticaceae: Laportea, Obetia, Pilea, Pouzolzia, Sarcopilea Order Santalales * Loranthaceae: Actinanthella, Agelanthus, Erianthemum, Helixanthera, Moquiniella, Oncocalyx, Pedistylis, Plicosepalus, Septulina, Tapinanthus, Vanwykia * Viscaceae(synonym Santalaceae): Viscum Order Sapindales * Anacardiaceae: Operculicaria, Pachycormus * Burseraceae: Boswellia, Bursera, Commiphora * Meliaceae: Entandrophragma * Sapindaceae: Erythrophysa Order Saxifragales * Crassulaceae: Adromischus, Aeonium, Afrovivella, Aichryson, Bryophyllum, Cotyledon, Crassula, Cremnophila, à Cremnosedum, Dudleya, Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Greenovia, Hylotelephium, Hypagophytum, Jovibarba, Kalanchoe, Lenophyllum, Meterostachys, Monanthes, Orostachys, Pachyphytum, Perrierosedum, Phedimus, Pistorinia, Prometheum, Pseudosedum, Rhodiola, Rosularia, Sedella, Sedum, Sempervivum, Sinocrassula, Thompsonella, Tacitus, Tylecodon, Umbilicus, Villadia * Saxifragaceae Order Solanales * Convolvulaceae: Ipomea, Merremia, Stictocardia, Turbina * Solanaceae: Nolana Order Vitales * Vitaceae: Cissus, Cyphostemma Order Zygophyllales * Zygophyllaceae: Augea, Seetzenia, Zygophyllum (unplaced order)* Boraginaceae: Heliotropium (unplaced order)* Icacinaceae: Pyrenacantha (geophyte) For some families, most members are succulent; for example the Cactaceae, Agavaceae, Aizoaceae, and Crassulaceae. The table below shows the number of succulent species found in some families: Family Succulent # Modified parts Distribution Agavaceae 300 Leaf North and Central America Cactaceae 1600 Stem (root, leaf) The Americas Crassulaceae 1300 Leaf (root) Worldwide Aizoaceae 2000 Leaf Southern Africa, Australia Apocynaceae 500 Stem Africa, Arabia, India, Australia Didiereaceae 11 Stem Madagascar (endemic) Euphorbiaceae > 1000 Stem and/or leaf and/or root Australia, Africa, Madagascar, Asia, the Americas, Europe Asphodelaceae 500 Leaf Africa, Madagascar, Australia Portulacaceae ? Leaf and stem The Americas, Australia, Africa [edit] See also * Crassulacean acid metabolism * Cactus and Succulent Society of America [edit] References 1. ^ ^a ^b Rowley 1980, p. 1 2. ^ Beentje 2010, p. 116 3. ^ ^a ^b Beentje 2010, p. 32 4. ^ "xerophyte", Dictionary of Botany, 2001 onwards, http://botanydictionary.org/xerophyte.html, retrieved 2012-09-23 5. ^ "Crassula helmsii (aquatic plant, succulent)", Global Invasive Species Database, ISSG, April 15, 2010, http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1517&fr=1&sts=s ss&lang=EN, retrieved 2012-09-23 6. ^ Jacobsen 1960 7. ^ Anderson 1999 8. ^ Hecht 1994 9. ^ Hewitt 1993 10. ^ Innes & Wall 1995 11. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977 12. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977, pp. 19-20 13. ^ Rowley 1980, p. 2 14. ^ ^a ^b ^c Compton n.d. 15. ^ Plants of Southern Africa Retrieved on 2010-1-1 16. ^ FloraBase - The Western Australian Flora Retrieved on 2010-1-1 17. ^ Australian Plant Names Index Retrieved on 2010-1-1 18. ^ PlantZAfrica Retrieved on 2010-1-1 [edit] Bibliography * Anderson, Miles (1999), Cacti and Succulents : Illustrated Encyclopedia, Oxford: Sebastian Kelly, ISBN 978-1-84081-253-4 * Beentje, Henk (2010), The Kew Plant Glossary, Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9 * Compton, R.H., ed. (n.d.), Our South African Flora, Cape Times Ltd, OCLC 222867742 (publication date also given as 1930s or 1940s) * Hecht, Hans (1994), Cacti & Succulents (p/b ed.), New York: Sterling, ISBN 978-0-8069-0549-5 * Hewitt, Terry (1993), The Complete Book of Cacti & Succulents, London: Covent Garden Books, ISBN 978-1-85605-402-7 * Innes, Clive & Wall, Bill (1995), Cacti, Succulents and Bromeliads, London: Cassell for the Royal Horticultural Society, ISBN 978-0-304-32076-9 * Jacobsen, Hermann (1960), A Handbook of Succulent Plants (Vols 1â3), Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, ISBN 978-0-7137-0140-1 * Martin, Margaret J. & Chapman, Peter R. (1977), Succulents and their cultivation, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-10221-1 * Rowley, Gordon D. (1980), Name that Succulent, Cheltenham, Glos.: Stanley Thornes, ISBN 978-0-85950-447-8 [edit] External links Look up succulent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. * SucculentCity.org * Drought Smart Plants * Cacti & Succulent Picture Gallery * Cactus and Succulent Field Number Database * Definition of a Succulent * Cactus and Succulent website with plenty of information Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Succulent_plant&oldid=533158 692" Categories: * Plant morphology * Succulent plants Hidden categories: * Articles needing additional references from January 2013 * All articles needing additional references * Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2012 * All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * íêµì´ * Hrvatski * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * ÒазаÒÑа * LatvieÅ¡u * Lietuvių * Magyar * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * SlovenÄina * Suomi * Svenska * à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 15 January 2013 at 05:33. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Or use the following contact options: * Phone: +49 (0) 8808 9345 * Fax: +49 (0) 8808 9346 * Email: info@plant-for-the-planet.org * Huella * Renuncia * Política de Privacidad * Prensa * Contacto * Login * Facebook * Twitter * Google+ * Flickr * Youtube * RSS * E-Mail [site-title.gif] * Home + News Archive * Learn More + Why plants are important + Why plants need our help + You can make a difference * About Plant Conservation Day + Partners * Celebration Stories * Resources for Organizers + For kids and families + For gardeners + Plant conservation tour + Conservation plant sale + Check out these books + Celebration resources Association of Zoological Horticulture Botanic Gardens Conservation International Plant Conservation Day > Learn More > Why plants need our help Why plants need our help bulldozer The world's plant species are facing unprecedented threats to their continued survival, despite the fact that their loss will have significant negative impacts on the humans and wildlife that depend upon them and the ecosystems services they provide. cactus Unfortunately, we know very little about what we are losing or how quickly we are losing it: there are nearly 250,000 angiosperm species currently known, and upwards of 350,000 species predicted (1). The world's plants are greatly underrepresented on the IUCN RedList when compared to other groups (2), but studies indicate that as many as 47% of the world's angiosperm species are now threatened with extinction (3). bg entrance Efforts to halt the loss of plant diversity are ongoing around the world (through local efforts and global efforts that collectively contribute to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation), but this work receives disproportionately less support and funding that equivalent work on animal species [e.g. over half of the listed species in the U.S. are plants, but these species receive only 5% of funding spent on endangered species (4)]. CITATIONS: 1. VAMOSI, J. C., AND J. R. U. WILSON. 2008. Nonrandom extinction leads to elevated loss of angiosperm evolutionary history. Ecology Letters 11: 1047-1053. 2. BRUMMITT, N., S. P. BACHMAN, AND J. MOAT. 2008. Applications of the IUCN Red List: towards a global barometer for plant diversity. Endang Species Res 6: 127-135. 3. PITMAN, N. C. A., AND P. M. JORGENSEN. 2002. Estimating the Size of the World's Threatened Flora. Science 298: 989. 4. KENNEDY, K. L. 2008. The Center for Plant Conservation: Twenty Years of Recovering America's Vanishing Flora, Saving Biological Diversity, 47-58. Contact BGCI - Contact AZH - Translate this page - Legal notices - Accessibility Montana State University in Bozeman Directories A-Z Index Search MSU_____ Search Montana State University Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology PSPP Home * Dept Information * Faculty & Staff + Faculty + Professional and Classified Staff + Contact Information * Undergraduate Program + Crop Science + Plant Biology + Environmental Horticulture Science + Landscape Design + General Biotechnology + Plant Systems + Sustainable Crop Production + Environmental Horticulture Minor * Graduate Program * General Student Info * Facilities * Producers and Farmers * More Information * Bozeman Community * College of Agriculture Dept of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology P.O. Box 173150 Bozeman, MT 59717-3150 Tel: (406) 994-5171 Fax: (406) 994-7600 Location: Plant BioScience Building Dept Head: Dr. John Sherwood CURRENT COURSE FOCUS CURRENT NEWSLETTER CURRENT RESEARCH vimeo wheat video Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology homepage The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology is part of the College of Agriculture at Montana State University in Bozeman. An exciting feature of this department is the diversity of programs in Plant Biology, Crop Science, Plant Pathology, Horticulture, Mycology, Plant Genetics and Entomology. The department offers BS, MS, and Ph.D. degree programs with a current enrollment of 100 undergraduate and 20 graduate students. The department has state-of-the-art laboratory and plant-growth facilities. Student and faculty researchers have access to seven research centers distributed across the state of Montana. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology offers class work for the undergraduate student in either Plant Science or Environmental Horticulture. Plant Science students can select degree options in Crop Science, Plant Biology or Plant Biotechnology. Environmental Horticulture students can select from options in Environmental Horticultural Science or Landscape Design. Graduate students can choose advanced work for a Master of Science degree in either Plant Sciences or Plant Pathology, or a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Plant Sciences with options in either Plant Pathology or Plant Genetics. The department participates in the inter-departmental Entomology Program, offering a Master of Science in Entomology and undergraduate Minor (for more information regarding entomology programs, contact Linda McDonald). An entering graduate student is expected to have a solid background in the basic sciences and a background equivalent to that provided by the undergraduate curriculum at Montana State University-Bozeman in the corresponding area of study. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology at Montana State University-Bozeman offers unique research strengths for graduate students, including 1) the biology, genetics and biochemistry of diseases of small grains, fungal products and the biological control of weeds and pathogens; 2) plant breeding and genetics emphasizing both traditional and molecular approaches; and 3) plant molecular biology and molecular genetics. (c) Montana State University Accessibility Accessibility Admissions Administration Contact List Jobs Legal & Trademarks Privacy Policy Site Index Français Français English English Print this page Save the date Add to your favorites Share Join the group to expand your network ! * News * Keydates * Links * Contacts * Disclaimer * Downloads * Home / Welcome Message * Co-organisers * Committees + Local Organising Committee + Technical Committee * Programme (Sept. 5-6) + Monday, September 5 + Tuesday, September 6 * Speakers guidelines * Technical Visits (Sept. 7) * Congress Dinner * Practical Information * Registration & Accommodation + Registration procedure + Accommodation * Sponsors * Attending companies * Media relations * Post congress page If you wish to be informed on updates about the conference, please submit your email address here: ____________________ Validate INVITATION TO JOIN! Welcome on our website ! Plant-based Chemistry Plant-based Chemistry constitutes a major avenue of progress for the sustainable development of chemistry in Europe. Plant-based chemistry enables us and proves that an alternative really does exist with European rural resources. On the occasion of the International Year of Chemistry, and continuing the event in February 2010 at Brussels (Lighthouses of Sustainability European Concepts for Competitive Bio-Based Chemicals) the main plant-based chemistry players in Europe are organizing an international «Plant-based Chemistry congress” with the focus on the achievements, challenges and opportunities. The meeting will be held in Paris at the Maison de la Chimie from Monday, September 5 to Wednesday, September 7, 2011 and forecasts to welcome 400 participants including academic researchers, industry representatives, policymakers and venture capital providers. The meeting will foster debate and discussions on challenges emerging from the new developments in this field. The first two days of the congress will feature plenary lectures and oral presentations while the third day will consist in technical visits of major French industrial sites such as Roquette and the Lestrem site, ARD and the Pomacle site, Sofiprotéol-Novance in Compiègne, Arkema and Le Cerdato in Serquigny. We look forward to welcoming you to Paris! Co-organisers Supported by Sponsored by Endorsed by * Home / Welcome Message * Contacts MCI FRANCE Aqualuna [allgrain.GIF] [all-in-poll.GIF] [allwind-poll.GIF] What is a Plant? Plants are essential for any ecosystem. They provide all the energy for the ecosystem, because they can get energy directly from sunlight. They use a process called photosynthesis to use energy from the sun to grow and reproduce. They also must get nutrients from the soil. Those nutrients get into the soil when decomposers break down waste and dead materials. Plants require space to grow and reproduce. The size of your ecodome will influence how much space your plants have. All other organisms in the food chain get energy from plants, either by directly eating them as herbivores do, or by eating plant eaters, like carnivores do. Omnivores can get energy either by eating plants directly or by eating herbivores. Likewise, decomposers get energy either from plants or from the animals that eat them. Since all the energy in your ecosystem comes from plants, you'd better have a lot of them. There are several different kinds of plants, and not all animals can eat all kinds of plants. [wind-poll.GIF] Grasses are only edible to herbivores. That is because the plants contain kinds of fiber that many omnivores cannot digest efficiently. Many herbivores have specially adapted stomachs that allow them to digest these plants. [dandelion3.jpg] [redclover.jpg] [grass3.jpg] [Bogmoss.gif] [in-poll.GIF] Fruit-Bearing Plants make fruit. Herbivores and omnivores can both eat fruit or vegetables from plants, however. Fruit and seeds and sometimes vegetables are part of the plant's reproduction, and generally the presence of pollinators will help these fruit-bearing plants survive better and make more fruit. [beans.gif] [potato.jpg] [corn2.jpg] [raspberry.jpg] [grapes.gif] [soybean.jpg] [strawberry.GIF] [grain.GIF] Finally, there are a kind of plants called grains which make seeds that can be eaten by certain kinds of omnivores but not all. Humans and chickens can eat grain seeds. Herbivores can eat the whole plant. [tallgrass.gif] __________________________________________________________________ GO TO: [largeherb.GIF] Herbivores [wind-poll.GIF] Plants [medomni.GIF] Omnivores [bigcarn.GIF] Carnivores [fungus.GIF] Decomposers [pollinator.GIF] Pollinators [dome.gif] Ecodome | skip navigation | | Home | About us | Aims | Contact us | News | Eden Project | New * Events * Feature articles * Plant People * News archive Getting around * Contributors * Stories * Past issues * Facts * Advertising * Join us Additional * Book reviews * Global plant conservation Colombia: From white to green 04.05.10 Plant Talk introduced the Colombian cocaine issue a few weeks ago. Today Colombian's Oscar Cuervo and Nelson Reyes describe how the cocaine industry is ravaging the environment and people in their beloved home country. The Colombian government has launched a campaign to raise awareness among cocaine consumers of the effects that coca crops have on the environment and people. The campaign Shared Responsibility aims to inform people and potential users of the dangers the drugs pose for human health and biodiversity. Colombia is a large country of almost 445,000 square miles and 45 million people. But it's the hugely diverse landscapes and wildlife that makes it so special. The country contains more than 35,000 plant species, an estimated 19% of the world’s bird biodiversity, 10% of fish and 6% of reptiles. Interestingly, Colombia has the second highest magnolia diversity, after China, and the Antioquia region alone contains 16 species (of which two have only recently been described). Because of this diversity and rarity, magnolias were selected as one of the pilot groups for implementation of the Colombian National Strategy for Plant Conservation. Disturbing digital art image of hummingbird taking cocaine. The Gorgeted Puffleg is an endangered hummingbird native to a small region in western Colombia and has become a figurehead of the Shared Responsibility campaign. With ecosystems ranging from the Amazon jungle to the snow peaks, coasts on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and a privileged position between North and South America. Colombia is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world and the sixth largest producer of freshwater. The famous Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson once noted that Biodiversity is to Colombia, what Oil is to Saudi Arabia. This rich natural history includes a vast number of endemic species, many of which are directly threatened by cultivation of coca. New species are constantly being discovered: but some may become extinct before they have even been discovered. It’s well known Colombia is the world's largest cultivator of the coca plant. Less well known is the massive scale of this cultivation. Currently there are 81,000 hectares under production, but in recent years cocaine production in Colombia has dropped by 28%, which may be due to the increased yields of new coca varieties. Unfortunately these illicit crops and the strategies to eradicate them have dramatic effects on the environment such as destruction of ecological niches, loss of unknown genetic potential, trashing of endemic vegetation, substantial increases in carbon dioxide emissions, changes in precipitation patterns and climate, among others. Big chunks of destroyed rainforest can be seen where cocaine is being grown The most obvious symptom of coca production is the very graphic destruction of the tropical rainforest by cutting and subsequent burning. However, there are more subtle impacts including the effect on sources and biodiversity. As a result, the environmental losses far exceed the actual areas of cultivation, and it is estimated that for every hectare of coca two to three hectares of forest have to be destroyed. Scientists estimate 2,100 hectares of forest are destroyed annually in Colombia in the production and eradication of illicit crops and according to estimates the cultivation, production and trafficking of coca in Colombia has caused the destruction of at least 2.4 million hectares of tropical forest over the past 20 years. This deforestation in turn drives soil erosion and a host of other environmental woes. pristine rainforest in Colombia damaged by cocaine production page 1 page 2 > Privacy policy | Cookies policy | Sitemap © the Eden Project, the Eden Project is owned by the Eden Trust registered charity no. 1093070 #zenhabits RSS Feed Finding Peace with Uncertainty How to Wait Less zenhabits : breathe A Guide to Eating a Plant-Based Diet Post written by Leo Babauta. If I could make a single dietary recommendation to people looking to get healthier, it would be to move to a plant-based diet. Eating plants has been the best change I’ve made in my diet — and I’ve made a bunch of them, from intermittent fasting to low-carb experiments to eating 6 meals a day to eating almost all protein to eliminating sugar (all at various times). Plants have made me slimmer, healthier, stronger, more energetic — and have increased my life expectancy (more on all this below). Of course, the diet is simple, but moving away from the Standard American Diet to a plant-based one isn’t always so simple for most people. Changing your diet can be difficult, but in this guide I’ll share a bit about how to change, talk a bit about why, and what you might eat. What’s a Plant-Based Diet? The simple answer, of course, is that you eat plants. You eliminate animals and (eventually) animal products like dairy and eggs. The less simple answer is there is an abundance of plant foods that most people never eat, and eating a plant-based diet means you might widen the variety of foods you eat. For example, some of my favorite foods include: tempeh, seitan, tofu, kale, broccoli, quinoa, ground flaxseeds, ground chia seeds, raw almonds and walnuts, raw almond butter, olive oil, all kinds of berries, figs, avocados, tomatoes, lentils, black beans, spirulina, hemp seeds, nutritional yeast, organic soymilk, sweet potatoes, squash, carrots, apples, peaches, mangoes, pineapple, garlic, red wine, green tea, brown rice, sprouted (flourless) bread, brown rice, steel-cut oats. A “plant-based diet” can be basically another way to say “vegan”, though many people do use the term to mean that you eat almost all plants with some animal products. In this post, I’ll be focusing on veganism, as I believe it’s the ultimate plant-based diet. Why Should I Change? There are a few important reasons to eat plants: 1. Health. The basis of this guide is health, and many people switch to eating plants because they want to lose weight, improve their heart health, stay healthy as they age, improve blood pressure or deal with diabetes. A plant-based diet has been shown to help with all of these things — if you also stay away from the processed foods. A diet of processed flour and sugar and fried foods isn’t healthy even if it’s all plants (more on this below). The healthiest populations in the world are plant based: the Okinawans (traditionally at almost all plants such as sweet potatoes, soybeans, lots of veggies, with a little fish and occasional pork), the Sardinians (beans & veggies, red wine, some cheese, meat only once a week), and the vegan Seventh-Day Adventists in Loma Linda, California who are the longest-living Americans. Eating plants is the best thing you can do to reduce your risk of the leading causes of death. 2. Environment. Honestly, while this is very important to me, it’s probably the least important of the three reasons on this list (for me personally, that is). But it’s huge: the biggest way to reduce your carbon footprint is to stop eating animal products — better than giving up a car (next best) or using less energy in your home or traveling by plane less or recycling or using solar energy or driving an electric car or buying fewer things. The animals we raise for food production use a ton of resources, eat way more plants than we do (which in turn also require resources to be grown), give off huge amounts of planet-warming methane, breathe out a lot of carbon dioxide, and create a lot of pollution. This 2006 United Nations report concludes that “Livestock have a substantial impact on the world’s water, land and biodiversity resources and contribute significantly to climate change. Animal agriculture produces 18 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 equivalents), compared with 13.5 percent from all forms of transportation combined.” And it takes 4,000 to 18,000 gallons of water to make the beef for one hamburger, according to a recent report from the U.S. geological survey. 3. Compassion. For me, this is the most important reason to move away from eating animals. I’ve talked a lot about compassion on this site, but by far the most cruel thing any of us does each day is consume animals (and their products). The cruelty that is perpetuated on these living, feeling, suffering beings on our behalf is enormous and undeniable. If you don’t believe me, watch this video with Sir Paul McCartney or this video about pigs. While I became vegan for health reasons, I stick with it for reasons of compassion — wanting to reduce the suffering of other sentient beings. But … if you don’t do it to avoid pollution, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, stroke, increased death rates, animal cruelty, global warming, deforestation, and higher costs … maybe weight loss would do it. Vegetarians and vegans weigh less on average than meat eaters. That’s even after adjusting for things like fibre, alcohol, smoking … and calorie intake! Half of Americans are obese, but vegans tend to be much less obese (with exceptions of course). That said, just going vegan will not necessarily cause you to lose weight. You could easily eat a lot of sugar, white flour, fake meats and fried foods and gain weight. If you eat whole plant foods, you’re likely to lose weight. Plant foods, for starters, have pretty much no saturated fat, low calories and tons of fiber, while animal foods all have saturated fat, lots of calories and zero fiber. Beating Death: I highly recommend watching this video on uprooting the causes of death using a plant-based diet. It’s a bit long, but well worth the time. How to Change It will be no surprise that I recommend people start small and change slowly. A good plan is to make the change in stages: 1. Slowly cut out meat. This stage is actually several smaller stages. You might try starting with Meatless Mondays and then, over time, expanding to other days of the week. Another common idea is to start by cutting out red meat, and then poultry, then seafood, in gradual stages of a month or even six months. There is no rush — do it at the pace that feels good to you. Another important point is that, as you eliminate meat, don’t just fill it with starches (which don’t have that much nutrition). Try new foods, experiment with ethic recipes, and explore different nutrients as you make these changes. 2. Eliminate eggs. After you cut out red meat and poultry, you’ll be pescatarian (seafood). When you eliminate seafood, you’re vegetarian! If you’re eating eggs and dairy, that’s called a “lacto-ovo” vegetarian. You can then eliminate eggs — and no, they’re not cruelty-free. This is one of the easier stages, in my experience. 3. Cut out dairy. This tends to be harder for most people. Not because of milk (soymilk and almond milk are good alternatives that just take a few days to adjust to) … but because of cheese. I hear a lot of people say, “I can’t give up my cheese!” — and I empathize, as this was a sticking point for me too. It helps that there are better and better cheese alternatives these days (Daiya being a favorite of many). But for me, what made all the difference is not focusing on what I was giving up, but on the good things I could eat! 4. Eat whole, unprocessed foods. This is the phase that I’m in, and I wholly recommend it. You can go straight here if you have no problems changing your diet, but people eating the Standard American Diet will find it difficult, because the foods are very different than what most people eat. For example, most people in the U.S. don’t eat many vegetables, and find them distasteful, especially dark green leafy veggies, which are the best. I now love vegetables, and kale is my best friend. Most people dislike protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, and beans. Most people don’t eat raw nuts — they eat roasted and salted nuts. However, all of this can change over time, which is why I recommend that you move into this slowly. What exactly is this phase? See the next section for details. What to Eat So what do you eat when you’re on a plant-based diet that focuses on whole foods? Lots! A few categories of foods to include regularly: 1. Beans and other protein. This means the regular kinds of beans, like lentils, black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, garbanzo beans, etc. But it can also mean soybeans (edamame), tofu, tempeh, and seitan (protein from wheat, not good for gluten-intolerant people). It can also mean soymilk, soy yogurt, and the like, which are often fortified. Get organic, non-GMO soy. 2. Nuts and seeds. My favorites include raw almonds and walnuts, along with ground flaxseeds and chia seeds, and hemp seed protein powder. Almond milk is also good. And quinoa — it’s like a grain, but really a seed, and full of nutrition. 3. Good fats. Fats aren’t bad for you — you should just look to avoid saturated fats. Luckily, not many plant foods have saturated fats. Plants with good fats include avocados, nuts and seeds mentioned above, olive oil and canola oil. 4. Greens. This is one of the most important and nutritious group of all. Dark, leafy green veggies are awesome, and full of calcium, iron and a ton of vitamins. My favorites: kale, spinach, broccoli, collards. Eat lots of them daily! They also have very few calories, meaning they pack a ton of nutrition in a small caloric package. 5. Other fruits and veggies. Get a variety — I love berries of all kinds, figs, apples, citrus fruits, peaches, mangoes, bananas, pears, bell peppers, garlic, beets, celery, cauliflower … I could go on all day! Get lots of different colors. 6. Good starches. Starches are not bad for you — but ones that have little calories aren’t great. So find starches that give you lots of nutrition. Sweet potatoes, red potatoes, squash, brown rice, sprouted whole wheat, steel-cut oats, among others. 7. Some other healthy stuff. I love red wine, green tea, cinnamon, turmeric, spirulina and nutritional yeast. OK, by now you might be overwhelmed by all of this. How do you put it together? It’s not that hard once you get used to it. Start learning some recipes that combine some of these foods into meals, and over time, you’ll have a few go-to meals that you love that are full of nutrition. Some examples that I like (but don’t limit yourself to these!): * Tofu scramble w/ veggies: some organic high-protein tofu crumbled and stir-fried with olive oil, garlic, diced carrots and tomatoes, spinach and mushrooms, and spiced with tamari, turmeric, sea salt and coarse black pepper. * Steel-cut oats: cook some steel-cut oats, then add ground flaxseeds, raw nuts, berries, cinnamon. * Stir-fry: Here’s my secret … you can make an endless combo of meals by cooking some garlic in olive oil, then cooking some veggies (carrots, bell peppers, mushrooms, etc.) and some protein (tofu, tempeh, seitan, etc.) and some greens (kale, broccoli, spinach, etc.) and some spices (turmeric or coconut milk or tamari & sesame oil, black pepper, salt). * Veggie chili over quinoa: Black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans with olive oil, garlic, onions, tomatoes, bell pepper, diced kale, diced carrots, tomato sauce, chili powder, salt, pepper. Maybe some beer for flavor. Serve over quinoa or brown rice. * One-pot meal: Quinoa, lentils, greens, olive oil, tempeh (or a bunch of other variations). Read Tynan’s post on cooking this all in one pot. * Whole-wheat pasta: Serve with a sauce — some tomato sauce with olive oil, garlic, onions, bell peppers, diced kale and carrots, diced tomatoes, fresh basil, oregano. * Big-ass Salad: Start with a bed of kale & spinach, throw on other veggies such as carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, snow peas, green beans, tomatoes … then some beans, nuts and/or seeds … top with avocado. Mix balsamic vinegar and olive oil, or red wine vinegar and olive oil, sprinkle on the salad. Yum. * Smoothies: Blend some almond or soy milk with frozen berries, greens, ground chia or flaxseeds, hemp or spirulina protein powder. Lots of nutrition in one drink! * Snacks: I often snack on fruits and berries, raw almonds or walnuts, carrots with hummus. * Drinks: I tend to drink water all day, some coffee (without sugar) in the morning, tea in the afternoon, and red wine in the evening. My Food Journal: If you’d like to see my food journal (admittedly not always perfectly healthy), I’ve started one that you can see here. Frequently Asked Questions I’ll add to this section as questions come in, though obviously I can’t answer everything. Q: Isn’t it hard to get protein on a vegan diet? A: Not really, as long as you eat a variety of whole foods, and not a bunch of processed flours and sugars (the white kind that has little nutrition). There is protein in vegetables and grains, and even more in beans, nuts and seeds. I often eat protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, edamame, black beans, lentils, quinoa, soymilk, and raw nuts. Read more here. Q: What about calcium or iron or B12? A: Again, it’s not difficult at all. I’ve calculated the iron and calcium in my diet at various times, and as long as I’m mostly eating whole foods, it’s really easy. Nuts and green veggies are your best friends, but there’s also calcium-fortified soymilk and tofu and the like. Eat some kale, quinoa, raw nuts, various seeds, broccoli, tofu or tempeh … it’s not difficult. Vitamin B12 is a bit more difficult to get from regular plants, as the main source of B12 is usually animal products — including eggs and dairy. But actually, vegans have figured this out, and now if you drink fortified soymilk or almond milk, or use nutritional yeast or a few other good sources like that, you will have no worries. More reading on iron, calcium and B12 for vegans. Q: Isn’t soy bad for you? A: No. That’s a myth. I would stick to organic, non-GMO soy, but actually soy is a very healthy source of protein and other nutrients, and has been eaten by very healthy people for thousands of years. More info here. Q: I follow the Paleo diet and believe this is how humans are meant to eat. A: Well, if you’re eating unprocessed foods and have cut out white flours and sugars and deep-fried foods, you’re probably healthier than the average American. I admire the Paleo crowd that focuses on whole foods and that eats lots of veggies and nuts and seeds, but when it’s just an excuse to eat lots of meat, it’s not as healthy. It’s also not true that hunter-gatherer societies ate mostly meat — the crowd that believes this has made a flawed review of contemporary hunter-gatherers. Most traditional societies eat, and have pretty much always eaten, mostly plants, including lots of starches — respected anthropologists such as Nathanial Dominy, PhD, from Dartmouth College say that the idea of hunter-gatherers eating mostly meat is a myth. Also read this. I’d also warn against low-carb, high-protein diets over the long run — in the short term, you’ll see weight loss, but in the long run they’ve been shown to increase cardiovascular disease (from June 21, 2012 issue of British Medical Journal). Q: It sounds difficult and complicated. A: Actually it’s very simple — you just learn to eat a variety of plants. It does mean learning some new meals, but instead of seeing that as a hardship, think of it as something fun to learn. If you slowly change your eating patterns, it’s not hard at all. Be flexible and don’t be too strict — you’ll find that it’s much easier if you allow yourself an occasional meal with animal products, especially in the first 6-12 months. Q: What about fake meats and cheeses? A: There’s nothing wrong with giving them a try now and then when you’re having a craving for something, but in all honesty you don’t need them. They’re more expensive and less healthy. Basically, they’re convenience foods. Q: What if I’m allergic to soy or gluten or nuts? A: It’s still possible to get all the nutrition you need from a plant-based diets without a specific kind of food (like gluten or soy), from what I understand. More here. Q: It sounds expensive. A: Actually it can be a lot less expensive, if you stay away from the vegan convenience foods (which are fine on occasion). Meat is more expensive than beans or tofu, for example. While fresh, organic veggies can cost a bit, you should get these in your diet even if you eat meat — and in the long run, you’ll save much more on medical bills. Q: There’s no way I’ll give up (eggs, cheese, ice cream, etc.)! A: Well, you don’t have to. If you want to eat mostly plants but also eggs and cheese, that’s much better than eating meat. But there are cheese substitutes you can try, and vegan ice cream, and in the long run, you might find that giving these things up isn’t as difficult as you think. Q: What about eating out at restaurants or social gatherings? A: I’d recommend you take it slowly at first, and eat mostly plants at home, and be more liberal when you eat out, for a little while. You don’t want to make this too difficult on yourself. But actually, once you learn some simple strategies, it’s not that hard to find vegan food in restaurants — some are easier than others, and sites like Happy Cow make it easy to find veg-friendly restaurants in your area. As for eating at friends’ and families’ houses, I’ve learned to offer to bring one or two vegan dishes, and it’s not usually a problem. Q: What if my family and friends don’t support this change? A: It’s best if you don’t start preaching — people don’t like it. This article might seem like a violation of that, but actually I rarely push veganism on this site, and when I do it’s only as a way to show others a healthy and compassionate alternative. Remember that those around you probably don’t know much about veganism, and are likely to react defensively. Take the opportunity, when they bring up the topic, to share what you’re learning, and the concerns you yourself had when you first learned about it. Show them some great vegan food. Share this guide with them. And always be patient. More answers here: Vegan Outreach Q&A, Vegan Nutrition FAQ, Vegan Society FAQ. 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All Rights Reserved [spacer.gif] * About AARS * Press Room * Contact * Search Rose.org_____ go * Home * AARS Winners * Region's Choice * Buying Roses * Growing Roses * Enjoying Roses Home > Growing Roses > Planting Roses * Rose Gardening Regional Growing Guide * Types of Roses * Planting Roses + Selecting a Planting Site + Bare Root Roses + Planting a Container Rose * Caring for Roses * Pruning Roses * Designing with Roses * FAQ * Zone Map * Books * Fragrant Roses Planting Roses Growing beautiful roses begins with proper rose planting techniques and requires neither great rose gardening skills nor experience. The following information describes how to get your new rose plant off to a great start. Simply use a little common sense in your choice of location, follow the steps outlined here and voila - your roses are off to a healthy start. Selecting a Site to Plant your Roses First, choose a sunny area of the garden that gets at least 4 to 5 hours of sun. Do not crowd your rose with other trees and plants. Some roses, such as climbers and shrubs, don't mind company, but most like to mix with other roses or other non-invasive plants. If you're replacing an older rose bush, it is important to remove an 18 cubic inch area of soil and replace it with fresh soil. A newly planted rose doesn't like to grow in the same soil that an older rose bush has been in. Learn more about Selecting a Site When to Plant * Bare Root Roses -An easy and inexpensive option for early season planting. Late winter is the best time plant bare-root roses. Learn more about Bare Root Roses * Container Roses - A container rose already has plenty of leaves and maybe some blooms. Early spring is the best time to set out plants grown in nursery containers (vs. bare-root, packaged plants). Learn more about Container Roses Step-by-Step instructions for Planting Roses 1. If you have a bare root plant, soak it in a bucket of water before planting. For roses that are potted, you can water the pot thoroughly and let it sit until ready to plant. 2. Dig a hole approximately 15 inches deep and 18 inches wide. If planting bare root roses, form a small mound of soil in the center of the planting hole. If you live in a colder area, plant a bit deeper and consult with your local garden center. 3. Add a small handful of bonemeal to the planting hole. Spade in some compost or peatmoss to loosen the soil. Mix the soil you took out of the hole with more compost or peat moss. 4. Remove the rose from the pot. Carefully place in the hole and shovel the extra soil around the new plant. Plant the rose with the crown slightly deeper than the original soil. The crown or bud union should be about 1 inch under the soil 5. Gently firm the rose into its new home and water well. Stand back and watch it grow! 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Click here [box_topleft.gif] [box_topright.gif] EPPO is an intergovernmental organization responsible for European cooperation in plant health. Founded in 1951 by 15 European countries, EPPO now has 50 members, covering almost all countries of the European and Mediterranean region. Its objectives are to protect plants, to develop international strategies against the introduction and spread of dangerous pests and to promote safe and effective control methods. As a Regional Plant Protection Organization, EPPO also participates in global discussions on plant health organized by FAO and the IPPC Secretariat. Finally, EPPO has produced a large number of standards and publications on plant pests, phytosanitary regulations, and plant protection products. more information >> [box_botleft.gif] [box_botright.gif] [box_topleft_c.gif] [box_topright_c.gif] Pour aider nos visiteurs francophones, plusieurs pages de ce site ont ete traduites en franc,ais (suivre les icones [Francesmall.gif] ). Mnogie stranicy nashego vebsajta byli perevedeny na russkij yazyk, chtoby oblegchit' rabotu s nim nashim russkoyazychnym posetitelyam (oboznacheny flazhkom [ru.gif] ) [box_botleft_c.gif] [box_botright_c.gif] Contact us | Links | EPPO Gallery | Follow us [facebook2.jpg] [twitter2.jpg] (c) 2013 EPPO - All Rights Reserved - EPPO Cloud [zendwww1] #prev next Skip Navigation Oxford Journals * Contact Us * My Basket * My Account Molecular Plant * About This Journal * Contact This Journal * Subscriptions * View Current Issue (Volume 6 Issue 1 January 2013) * Archive * Search * Oxford Journals * Life Sciences * Molecular Plant * Volume 5 Issue 6 * Pp. 1167-1169. IFRAME: /resource/htmlfiles/advert.html?p=Top&u=mplant.oxfordjournals.org/conte nt/5/6/1167.extract Nutrient Sensing in Plants 1. Xiaofeng Cui 1. Deputy Editor-in-Chief, Molecular Plant 1. xiaofeng{at}sippe.ac.cn * Accepted September 24, 2012. Higher plants require a number of essential nutrient elements for completing their life cycles. Mineral nutrients are mainly acquired by roots from the rhizosphere and are subsequently distributed to shoots. To cope with nutrient limitations, plants have evolved a set of elaborate responses consisting of sensing mechanisms and signaling processes to perceive and adapt to external nutrient availability. In 2010, Molecular Plant published a special issue focusing on nutrient sensing and signaling in plants (Volume 3, Number 2, 2010). This themed issue was organized by Dr Daniel Schachtman and has been freely accessible since March 2011. Notably, this special issue collected five review and ten research articles from leading scientists in the area of sensing and signaling mechanisms underlying responses to the status of phosphate, potassium, sulfate, and energy. PHOSPHATE Phosphorus (P) is a crucial structural element of many organic molecules such as nucleic acids, ATP, and phospholipids. Although P is abundant in the soil, plants can only absorb its inorganic forms such as phosphate (Pi), which has poor mobility. In Arabidopsis, the root tip is the major site in sensing Pi deficiency. Several Arabidopsis mutants, including pdr2, lpi, and lpr, have been isolated and shown to display altered root growth under Pi starvation. These phenotypic changes are linked to the complex crosstalks between Pi and phytohormone signaling pathways in response to gibberellins, ethylene, auxin, and cytokinins, as well as sugar (Rouached et al., 2010). Plants absorb Pi by Pi transporters (PHT) including Pi/H^+ symporters. Several genes encode Pi transporters required for Pi transport across plasma membrane (PM), and flux into and from chloroplast, mitochondria, and Golgi, respectively. The PHT1 family genes PHT1;1 and PHT1;4 are highly induced by Pi starvation and encode PM high-affinity … [Full Text of this Article] « Previous | Next Article » Table of Contents This Article 1. Mol. Plant (2012) 5 (6): 1167-1169. doi: 10.1093/mp/sss107 First published online: September 30, 2012 1. » Extract 2. Full Text (HTML) 3. Full Text (PDF) 4. All Versions of this Article: 1. sss107v1 2. sss107v2 3. 5/6/1167 most recent Classifications 1. + Editorial Services 1. Alert me when cited 2. Alert me if corrected 3. Find similar articles 4. Similar articles in Web of Science 5. Similar articles in PubMed 6. Add to my archive 7. Download citation 8. Request Permissions Citing Articles 1. Load citing article information 2. Citing articles via CrossRef 3. Citing articles via Scopus 4. Citing articles via Web of Science Google Scholar 1. Articles by Cui, X. PubMed 1. PubMed citation 2. Articles by Cui, X. Related Content 1. Load related web page information Share 1. 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Global Analysis of Direct Targets of Secondary Wall NAC Master Switches in Arabidopsis 2. Fluorescence Intensity Decay Shape Analysis Microscopy (FIDSAM) for Quantitative and Sensitive Live-Cell Imaging: A Novel Technique for Fluorescence Microscopy of Endogenously Expressed Fusion-Proteins 3. Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci Affecting Hemicellulose Characteristics Based on Cell Wall Composition in a Wild and Cultivated Rice Species 4. StructureFunction Relations of Strigolactone Analogues: Activity as Plant Hormones and Plant Interactions 5. Cellulose Synthases and Synthesis in Arabidopsis » View all Most Read articles * Most Cited 1. An Update on Abscisic Acid Signaling in Plants and More ... 2. Plant Cell Wall Matrix Polysaccharide Biosynthesis 3. Chloroplast Proteomics and the Compartmentation of Plastidial Isoprenoid Biosynthetic Pathways 4. Narrowing Down the Targets: Towards Successful Genetic Engineering of Drought-Tolerant Crops 5. 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See Resources Plant Biology Plant Biology The plant group at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory studies fundamental mechanisms in plant development and genetics that impact crop productivity, biodiversity and climate change. Their research uses Arabidopsis, maize and most recently tomato as model systems and expands upon the Nobel prize-winning work done here by Barbara McClintock in the 1940s and 50s. The transposable genetic elements, or "jumping genes," that she discovered are now understood to reprogram the epigenome and are being used at CSHL for functional genomics in Arabidopsis and maize. CSHL has taken part in numerous plant genome sequencing projects including Arabidopsis, rice, sorghum and maize, as well as epigenomic sequencing and profiling. We are part of the iPlant Cyberinfrastructure consortium and the Long Island Biofuels Alliance. The Laboratory owns 12 acres of farmland nearby called Uplands Farm. Here, an expert staff raises maize, tomato and Arabidopsis plants for study. Plant Biology researchers at CSHL: David Jackson - Plant development; stem cell signaling; genomics and imaging Rob Martienssen - Epigenetics; DNA methylation; chromatin and chromosome biology; transposable elements; RNA interference; stem cells; germline specification; plant genomics; plant evolution; aquatic plants Marja Timmermans - Plant development; epigenetic regulation of stem cell fate; pattern formation via small RNAs Zachary Lippman - Plant developmental genetics; mechanisms of phase transitions for flowering time and inflorescence branching; heterosis Doreen Ware - Computational biology; comparative genomics; genome evolution; diversity; gene regulation; plant biology © 2012 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. All Rights Reserved. [CSHL_logo_footer.png] One Bungtown Road Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 516-367-8800 Contact | Site Map | Directions | Privacy Policy #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Evergreen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about plant types. For other uses, see Evergreen (disambiguation). A Silver Fir shoot showing three successive years of retained leaves. In botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs. Evergreens include: * most species of conifers (e.g., hemlock, blue spruce, red cedar, and white/scots/jack pine) * live oak, holly, and "ancient" gymnosperms such as cycads * most angiosperms from frost-free climates, such as eucalypts and rainforest trees The Latin binomial term sempervirens (literally, "always green") refers to the evergreen nature of the plant, for instance:- Acer sempervirens (a maple) Cupressus sempervirens (a cypress) Lonicera sempervirens (a honeysuckle) Sequoia sempervirens (a sequoia) Ulmus parvifolia 'Sempervirens' (an elm) An additional special case exists in Welwitschia, an African gymnosperm plant that produces only two leaves which grow continuously throughout the plant's life but gradually wear away at the apex. Welwitschia can live for over 1000 years. Leaf persistence in evergreen plants varies from a few months (with new leaves constantly being grown as old ones are shed) to several decades (over thirty years in the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine^[1]). Contents * 1 Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous * 2 Metaphorical use * 3 See also * 4 References [edit] Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous A Southern Live Oak in winter. Deciduous trees shed their leaves usually as an adaptation to a cold or dry season. Evergreen trees do lose leaves, but not all at the same time the way that deciduous trees do. Different trees shed their leaves at different times, so the forest as a whole looks green. Most tropical rainforest plants are considered to be evergreens, replacing their leaves gradually throughout the year as the leaves age and fall, whereas species growing in seasonally arid climates may be either evergreen or deciduous. Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen. In cool temperate climates, fewer plants are evergreen, with a predominance of conifers, as few evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about -30 °C. In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous (e.g. a cold season or dry season), being evergreen is usually an adaptation to low nutrient levels. Deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their leaves. In warmer areas, species such as some pines and cypresses grow on poor soils and disturbed ground. In Rhododendron, a genus with many broadleaf evergreens, several species grow in mature forests but are usually found on highly acidic soil where the nutrients are less available to plants. In taiga or boreal forests, it is too cold for the organic matter in the soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily available to plants, thus favouring evergreens. In temperate climates, evergreens can reinforce their own survival; evergreen leaf and needle litter has a higher carbon-nitrogen ratio than deciduous leaf litter, contributing to a higher soil acidity and lower soil nitrogen content. These conditions favour the growth of more evergreens and make it more difficult for deciduous plants to persist. In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to survive cold and/or drought.^[2]^[3]^[4] Evergreen plants and deciduous plants have almost all the same diseases and pests, but long-term air pollution, ash and toxic substances in the air are more injurious for evergreen plants than deciduous plants (for example spruce Picea abies in European cities). [edit] Metaphorical use Owing to the botanical meaning, the term "evergreen" can refer metaphorically to something that is continuously renewed or is self-renewing. One example of metaphorical use of the expression is the term "Evergreen content" used to describe perennial articles or guides about topics that do not change frequently.^[5] [edit] See also * Conifer * Deciduous * Fir * Hemlock * Pine * Semi-deciduous * Spruce * Little Trees * Hemp [edit] References 1. ^ Ewers, F. W. & Schmid, R. (1981). Longevity of needle fascicles of Pinus longaeva (Bristlecone Pine) and other North American pines. Oecologia 51: 107â115 2. ^ Aerts, R. (1995). The advantages of being evergreen. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10 (10): 402â407. 3. ^ Matyssek, R. (1986) Carbon, water and nitrogen relations in evergreen and deciduous conifers. Tree Physiology 2: 177â187. 4. ^ Sobrado, M. A. (1991) Cost-Benefit Relationships in Deciduous and Evergreen Leaves of Tropical Dry Forest Species. Functional Ecology 5 (5): 608â616. 5. ^ Gomes, Diego. (2011). [1] What is evergreen content Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evergreen&oldid=528770544" Categories: * Plants * Botany Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * à²à²¨à³à²¨à²¡ * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * Bahasa Melayu * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Polski * Português * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * Suomi * Svenska * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * Vèneto * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 19 December 2012 at 08:10. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Science Kids - Fun Science & Technology for Kids! Science for Kids Math for Kids English for Kids _______________________________________________________ Search Science kids home Fun science experiments Cool science games & activities Amazing science facts Science quizzes Science fair projects Science lesson plans and class ideas Science images, photos & pictures Science videos Science topics Free Science Games & Activities for Kids Plant & Animal Differences Game Plant & Animal Differences Learn about the differences between animals & plants by sorting them into different categories. Discover more about mammals, birds, insects & plants with this fun activity for kids. Find out which category living things such as bees, penguins, horses, butterflies, humans, trees and flowers fit into. Work fast as the conveyor belt moves across the screen, quickly put the different plants and animals into the correct boxes. Take up the challenge and enjoy this cool, educational game. [EMBED] Science Kids (c) | Home | About | Topics | Experiments | Games | Facts | Quizzes | Projects | Lessons | Images | Videos | Privacy | Sitemap | Updated: Jan 9, 2013 Wayne's Word Index Noteworthy Plants Trivia Lemnaceae Biology 101 Botany Search Economically Important Plant Families Numbered Plant Familes Are Used On Botany 115 Exam #4 Submission Form See A Numerical List Of All Plant Families Used On This Version Of Exam #4 [pdficon.gif] Click PDF Icon To Read Page In Acrobat Reader. See Text In Arial Font Like In A Book. View Exam Off-Line: Right Click On PDF Icon To Save Target File To Your Computer. Click Here To Download Latest Acrobat Reader. Follow The Instructions For Your Computer. _______________ Find On This Page: Type Word Inside Box; Find Again: Scroll Up, Click In Box & Enter [Try Control-F or EDIT + FIND at top of page] **Note: This Search Box May Not Work With All Web Browsers** CAPTION: Look Up Plant Family Alphabetically A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 1. Aceraceae: Maple Family Back To Alphabet Table Acer spp. Maple [Beautiful hardwoods, lumber and shade trees.] A. saccharum Sugar Maple [From sapwood during early spring; many commercial syrups contain artificial ingredients such as colorings, flavorings and preservatives.] Maple Syrup From The Sugar Maple Tree 2. Actinidiaceae: Actinidia Family Back To Alphabet Table Actinidia chinensis Kiwi or Chinese Gooseberry [Fuzzy green fruit with translucent pale green flesh surrounding narrow ring of tiny black seeds; the flavor suggests a blend of melon, strawberry and banana.] See Delicious, Fresh Kiwi Fruits 3. Agaricaceae and Boletaceae: Mushroom Families Back To Alphabet Table [Also Including The Cantharellaceae, Morchellaceae & Tricholomataceae] Agaricus campestris Field Mushroom (Agaricaceae) A. bisporus Button Mushroom [Common mushroom sold in supermarkets; the portobello mushroom is a variety of this species.] Boletus edulis King Bolete (Boletaceae) Cantharellus cibarius Chanterelle (Cantharellaceae) Morchella esculenta Morel (Morchellaceae) M. elata Black Morel (Morchellaceae) Lentinus edodes Shi-Take Mushroom (Tricholomataceae) Go To The Wayne's Word Fungus Article See A Cluster Of Delicious Fresh Morels See A Delicious King Bolete (Boletus edulis) Mr. Wolffia Overindulging On Boletus edulis See A Basket Of Delicious Fresh Chanterelles Some Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain 4. Agavaceae: Agave Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae Agave atrovirens Pulque Plant [Pulque is the fermented juice from the base of flower stalk; leaves of central cone are removed and the sap is allowed to collect in the cavity; mescal and tequila are distilled pulque; other species of Agave are also used for pulque.] A. sisalina Sisal [Strong fibers from leaves.] Phormium tenax New Zealand Flax [Strong leaf fibers 3 to 7 feet long.] Sansevieria metalaea and other spp. Bowstring Hemp [Strong fiber from leaves; sometimes placed in the Liliaceae.] Cordyline fruticosa Ti Plant [Many uses for fibrous leaves of this Polynesian plant.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers Read About Legendary Hawaiian Ti Plant Amaranthaceae: Amaranth Family Back To Alphabet Table Amaranthus caudatus Jataco or Achita [Edible leaves used as a potherb; nutritious seeds cooked and eaten like cereal grains.] Amaranthus retroflexus Pigweed [Edible leaves and seeds.] A. cruentus, A. powellii, A. hypochondriacus Amaranth [Edible seeds ground into flour; amaranth flour was important South American cereal during pre-Columbian times; grown by the Aztecs and southwest Indians for millennia, the small seeds are rich in lysine and the young leaves are high in calcium and iron.] Red Inflorescence & Seeds Of Amaranth Species 5. Amaryllidaceae: Amaryllis Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae The following plants with edible bulbs are often placed in the lily family but are more correctly members of the Amaryllis Family--Amaryllidaceae: Allium cepa Onion and Shallot [Edible bulbs; including many different varieties.] A. ampeloprasum (A. porrum) Leek [Delicious edible bulb and leaves.] A. sativum Garlic [Edible bulb; valuable seasoning and medicinal herb.] A. schoenoprasum Chives [Leaves used for garnish and herb.] See Fresh Red, White & Yellow Onions Garlic: Seasoning & Medicinal Herb See Bulb And Leaves Of A Fresh Leek 6. Anacardiaceae: Cashew or Sumac Family Back To Alphabet Table Anacardium occidentale Cashew [The cashew "nut" is attached to a swollen, fleshy stalk (pedicel) called the cashew apple; the outer shell of the "nut" contains the allergen urushiol and can cause a dermatitis reaction similar to that of poison oak and poison ivy.] Spondias mombin Hog Plum S. purpurea Red Mombin Harpephyllum caffrum Kaffir Plum Pleiogynium solandri (P. timorense) Burdekin Plum Mangifera indica Mango Pistacia vera Pistachio Nut P. lentiscus Gum Mastic P. chinensis Chinese Pistache Pachycormus discolor Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see elephant trees (Bursera spp.) in Burseraceae.] Gluta renghas Rengas Tree [Tropical Malaysian tree with beautiful heartwood; dangerous to work because of urushiol in resin.] Melanorrhoea usitata Burmese Lacquer Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Semecarpus anacardium India Marking Nut Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Metopium toxiferum and Comocladia dodonaea [Caribbean shrubs that contain urushiol.] Schinus molle Peruvian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] S. terebinthifolius Brazilian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] Toxicodendron vernicifluum Lacquer Tree. [From milky sap which darkens upon oxidation; sap contains urushiol.] Note: Shellac is prepared from a resinous secretion on the twigs of several tree species by an insect, Tachardia lacca or Laccifer lacca. This insect is a member of the order Homoptera along with aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs, and cicadas. Confectioner's glaze (also known as pharmaceutical glaze) is an alcohol based solution of food grade shellac. It extends the shelf life of candies and tablets and protects them from moisture. It also masks the unpleasant odor and taste of certain medicinal tablets and aids in swallowing. Since the shellac coating is insoluble in stomach acids, it is used in time-released pills. T. diversilobum, T. radicans, and T. vernix Poison Oak, Poison Ivy, and Poison Sumac. All are painful experiences to hypersensitive people. Dermatitis reactions can also occur from handling the shells of cashew nuts and from eating mangoes. See Photo Of A Delicious Fresh Mango See Photograph Of Delicious Hog Plums See Photograph Of Colorful Kaffir Plums See Photograph Of Unusual Burdekin Plums See Pistachio Nut--Technically A Drupe See Leaf & Drupes Of Chinese Pistache See Resin Globules From Gum Mastic Tree See A Fabulous Cashew Apple And Nut Pink Peppercorns From Peruvian Pepper Tree Plants Of The Sumac Family (Anacardiaceae) See WAYNE'S WORD Poison Oak Article See The Seed Lac Excretion Of Lac Insect 7. Annonaceae: Custard Apple Family Back To Alphabet Table Annona cherimola Cherimoya A. muricata Soursop A. reticulata Custard Apple A. squamosa Sugar Apple Asimina triloba Papaw Cananga odorata Ylang-Ylang (Ilang-Ilang) [Flowers the are source of cananga oil used in perfumes.] Asimina trilobata Pawpaw [A smaller, pulpy berry of the Annonaceae that grows wild in North America; it comes from a small deciduous tree native to forested regions of the eastern and southestern United States.] See Soursop Growing On A Tree Trunk See A Delicious, Ripe Cherimoya Fruit Delicious, Ripe Sugar Apple On A Tree See The Unusual Flowers Of Ylang-Ylang 8. Apiaceae: Carrot Family (Umbelliferae) Back To Alphabet Table Anethum graveolens Dill Anthriscus cerefolium Chervil Apium graveolens Celery [Edible leaf stalks or petioles.] Carum carvi Caraway Coriandrum sativum Coriander [Seeds used as a tasty seasoning; aromatic leaves (called cilantro) used as garnish and in salsa and guacamole dishes.] Cuminum cyminum Cumin Daucus carota Carrot [Edible taproot; also called Queen Ann's lace when flowering.] Foeniculum vulgare Fennel [Edible petioles; seeds used like anise for licorice flavoring in cady, medicines, perfumes, liquor and soap; true licorice from root of a perennial legume. Pastinaca sativa Parsnip [Edible taproot; similar to the deadly poisonous water hemlock.] Petroselinum crispum Parsley [Leaves used as garnish and possibly to freshen breath after eating.] Pimpinella anisum Anise Note: Two very poisonous species in this family with parsnip-like roots and parsely-like leaves that you do NOT want to use as greens in salads or cooked as vegetables. They typically grow along streams or in wet bottom lands: 1. Cicuta douglasii Water Hemlock [One large taproot in a salad can be fatal to an adult human; causes convulsions.] 2. Conium maculatum Poison Hemlock [The infamous hemlock supposedly used on Socrates; purple dots on stems; can be fatal without convulsions. Herbs & Vegetables Of Carrot Family See Coriander & Cilantro Compared See Leaf Bases & Seeds Of Sweet Fennel See The Large Edible Root Of Parsnip See The Petioles & Root Of Celery See Edible Taproots of Daucus carota See Large Field Of Dill In Montana See Poison Hemlock & Water Hemlock 9. Apocynaceae: Dogbane Family Back To Alphabet Table Carissa grandiflora (C. macrocarpa) Natal Plum Catharanthus roseus Madagascar Periwinkle [Source of the anti-tumor alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine.] Dyera costulata Jelutong [Important Malaysian timber tree; jelutong latex mixed with chicle for chewing gum.] Rauvolfia serpentina Snakeroot [Source of the medical alkaloid reserpine.] See The South African Natal Plum Plants Producing Medical Alkaloids Plants Used For Rubber & Chewing Gum 10. Aquifoliaceae: Holly Family Back To Alphabet Table Ilex species Holly [The bright red berries of several North American species are used for wreaths and colorful decorations at Christmas time.] I. paraguariensis Yerba Mate [A popular tea is brewed from the dried, crushed leaves of this South American holly; in "mate cocido" the leaves are toasted during the drying process; yerba mate contains about 1% caffeine compared with more than 5% for guarana.] I. opaca, I. glabra and I. cassine Holly [North American species in which the dry, roasted leaves are occasionally used for teas.] Yerba Mate Tea Sipped From A Gourd 11. Araceae: Arum Family Back To Alphabet Table Colocasia esculenta Taro and Dasheen [Source of Polynesian dish poi; from starchy subterranean corms; some botanists refer to dasheen as variety antiquorum; cultivated plants with huge leaves called elephant ears.] Monstera deliciosa Monstera or Ceriman [Edible multiple fruit or spadix.] See Taro Corms And Taro Plants See Fruit Of Monstera Deliciosa 12. Araliaceae: Aralia Family Back To Alphabet Table Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius Asian & North American Ginseng. [Medicinal tea from fusiform taproots.] Tetrapanax papyriferus Rice Paper Plant [Paper made from the pith.] Aralia racemosa American Spikenard [Medicinal herb tea from taproot; the taproot of another species called wild sarsaparilla (A. nudicaulis) is sometimes used in rootbeer. ] See The Remarkable Rice Paper Plant Ginseng Root Used For Medicinal Tea See An Aralia Called Wild Sarsaparilla 13. Araucariaceae: Araucaria Family Back To Alphabet Table Agathis australis Kauri Pine [Important New Zealand source of copal resins for varnishes.] A. dammara (A. alba) Amboina Pine [Another source of copal resins from East Indies & Malaysia.] Araucaria columnaris Cook Pine or New Caledonia Pine [Timber tree native to New Caledonia with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] A. heterophylla Norfolk Island Pine [Timber tree with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] Note: Baltic amber is the polymerized resin from ancient coniferous forests dating back about 50 million years. The semiprecious gem called Whitby jet is the carbonized remains of ancient conifer forests dating back about 160 million years. See Bowl Made From The Beautiful Cook Pine Article About Amber: Nature's Transparent Tomb The Black, Semiprecious Gem Known As Jet 14. Arecaceae: Palm Family (Palmae): Back To Alphabet Table Calamus spp. Rattan [From several species of climbing palms.] Calamus (Daemonorops) draco Dragon's Blood [Bright red dye from resinous fruit; dragon's blood dye also obtained from resinous sap of Dracaena draco & D. cinnabari (Dracaenaceae).] Ceroxylon andicola Wax Palm [From trunk.] Copernicia prunifera (C. cerifera) Carnauba Wax Palm [Exudation on leaves.] C. alba Carnaday Wax Palm [Waxy cuticle used as secondary industrial source of wax.] Bactris gasipaes Pejibaye Palm [Small palm with spiny trunk; clusters of small orange fruits common in marketplace of Costa Rica during summer months.] Butia capitata Jelly Palm [A South American palm native to Brazil; fleshy mesocarp of drupes with delicious flavor of apricots.] Hyphaene ventricosa Vegetable Ivory Palm [From hard endosperm.] Jubaea chilensis Chilean Wine Palm [Wine made from fermented sap.] Metroxylon amicarum Ivory Nut Palm Phytelephas aequatorialis Ivory Nut Palm [Hard endosperm used for buttons, chessmen, poker chips, dice, knobs, etc; today largely replaced with plastic polymers.] Phoenix dactylifera Date Palm Elaeis guineensis African Oil Palm [Seeds high in saturated fats.] Serenoa repens Saw Palmetto [Small palm native to Florida Everglades region; berries used as herb to maintain healthy prostate gland.] Areca catechu Betel-Nut Palm [Seeds commonly chewed by people throughout the far eastern region.] Cocos nucifera Coconut. [The nutritious meat or "copra" within the seed is endosperm tissue (coconut milk is liquid endosperm); the "coconut apple" is a spongy, sweet mass of cotyledon tissue inside the seed cavity that dissolves and absorbs the endosperm; the "coir" fibers come from the fibrous husk or mesocarp.] There are 2 main types or varieties of coconuts. The niu kafa types have an elongate, angular fruit, up to 6 inches in diameter, with a small egg-shaped nut surrounded by an unusually thick husk. Niu vai types have a larger more spherical fruit, up to 10 inches in diameter, with a large, spherical nut inside a thin husk. The niu kafa type represents the ancestral, naturally-evolved, wild-type coconut, disseminated by floating. The niu vai type was derived by domestic selection for increased endosperm ("meat" and "milk") and is widely dispersed and cultivated by humans. Both types of fruit can float, but the thicker, angular husk adapts the niu kafa type particularly well to remote atoll conditions where it can be found today. See Noteworthy Plants Vegetable Ivory Article Read About The Ocean Dispersal of Coconuts See The Fruit Of A Coconut Called A Dry Drupe See The Details Of A Sprouting Coconut Fruit The Truth About The Infamous Coconut Pearl See Pejibaye Palm (Peach Palm) In Costa Rica See African Oil Palm & Palm Fruits In Costa Rica See The Saw Palmetto Of S.E. United States See Fleshy Drupes Of South American Jelly Palm See The Betel-Nut Palm & Betel-Nut Necklace See Unpollinated & Pollinated Fruits Of Date Palm See Jubaea chilensis: The Chilean Wine Palm See Remarkable Bay-leaf Thatch Palm In Belize Wax From Leaves Of The Carnauba Wax Palm Wax From Leaves Of The Carnaday Wax Palm 15. Aspergillaceae: Aspergillus Family Back To Alphabet Table Aspergillus oryzae Miso Mold [A very important fungus used in the fermentation of soybeans to make miso paste and in the fermentation of rice to make sake.] Penicillium spp. Blue Bread Molds [Although this genus includes some destructive molds of bread and citrus fruits, it also contains some valuable species, including P. roqueforti and P. camemberti which are responsible for Roquefort and Camembert cheese; vital antibiotic drugs such as penicillin are also produced by species of Penicillium, including P. notatum and P. chrysogenum.] See Economically Important Fungi See Miso Paste Made From Soybeans 16. Asteraceae: Sunflower Family (Compositae) Back To Alphabet Table Anthemis nobilis Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called mayweed (A. cotula) in San Diego County.] Matricaria chamomilla German Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called pineapple weed (M. matricarioides) in San Diego County.] Artemisia dracunculus Tarragon. [Leaves used for seasoning.] A. absinthium Wormwood or Absinthe [Vicent van Gogh (1853-1890) suffered from epilepsy and was treated with digoxin from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea). His famous work, "The Starry Night" contains yellow circles around the stars, which are similar to visual problems described by patients with digoxin toxicity even today. Van Gogh also drank the liqueur absinthe on a regular basis. Absinthe is a green, bitter liqueur primarily flavored with wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), a European herbaceous perennial related to the native sagebrush species (Artemisia) of the western United States. Absinthe also contains thujone, a terpenoid component of many essential oils, including those found in Artemisia and the coniferous genus Thuja. Research has shown that thujone not only fuels creativity, but also that an overdose of the compound causes yellow-tinged vision. Either absinthe or digoxin toxicity may have contributed to van Gogh's increasing use of the color yellow in the last years of his life; or perhaps van Gogh may simply have loved the color yellow.] Carthamus tinctorius Safflower. [Oil from seeds.] Cichorium endivia Endive [Leaves used as garnish and herb.] C. intybus Chicory. [Taproot roasted and ground, used as an adulterant in coffee; a weed in western U.S.] Cynara scolymus Globe Artichoke [Immature flower heads are cooked and eaten; the tender receptacle and "meaty" phyllaries are dipped in butter.] C. cardunculus Cardoon or Thistle Artichokes [Globe artichoke derived from this species and may be only be a variety rather than a separate species; inner leaves and petioles (leaf stalks) are edible; flower heads used for dry flower arrangements.] Echinacea purpurea Echinacea [Herb used to boost immune system.] Helianthus annuus Sunflower [Tasty, nutritious edible seeds produced in large heads; also valuable unsaturated oil from seeds.] H. tuberosus Jerusalem Artichoke [Sunflower with edible tubers similar to small potatoes.] Lactuca sativa Lettuce [Leafy compact head; many varieties, romaine lettuce with more elongate leaves; related to prickly lettuce (L. serriola), a common weedy species in San Diego County.] Parthenium argentatum Guayule [Only important U.S. source of rubber.] Silybum marianum Milk Thistle [A prickly herb used to detoxify the liver.] Tagetes lemmonii Scented Marigold [An aromatic shrub with fragrant foliage used for a tea.] Taraxacum officinale Dandelion [Leaves used in salads and cooked as a vegetable.] Tragopogon porrifolius Salsify or Oyster Plant [Cooked taproot with flavor of oysters; weedy species in western U.S. resemble large, blue-flowered dandelions; cross pollination with yellow-flowered T. dubius resulting in sterile diploid (2n=12) and fertile tetrapolid (2n=24) hybrids; in fertile, blue-flowered tetraploids, all haploid sets (n=6) from each parent have a homologous set of chromosomes to pair up with during synapsis of meiosis I; hence viable gametes and seeds are produced.] Parachute Seeds Of Tragopogon Related To Salsify See Photo Of Rubber-Producing Guayule Plant See Photo Of Jerusalem Artichoke Or Sunchoke Edible Sunflower Seeds & Valuable Sunflower Oil See Edible Flower Heads Of The Globe Artichoke Flower Head & Parachute Seeds Of Thistle Artichoke See Photo Of The Flowers & Leaves Of A Dandelion Chicory: A Dandelion Relative Used In Coffee See The Root Of Japanese Burdock Or Gobo See Photograph Of The Herb Called Echinacea See Photograph Of The Herb Called Milk Thistle See Photograph Of The Herb Called Tarragon Photograph Of The Shrub Called Scented Marigold See Photograph Of The Herb Called Absinthe Sunflower Family: World's Largest Plant Family 17. Bangiaceae: Porphyra Family Back To Alphabet Table Porphyra species. Nori [This genus includes a number of species of intertidal red algae that are collected for food in Asian countries; nori is commonly cultivated in shallow muddy bays of Japan; the dried blades are packaged and sold in Asian markets throughout the world; nori provides the tasty black wrapper around sushi, and is also wrapped around crackers and used in soups.] Bangia fusco-purpurea Cow Hair or Hair Seaweed [An intertidal alga with a slender hairlike thallus; this species is eaten like fine pasta in many Asian dishes.] See Photo Of Porphya & Sheets Of Dried Nori 18. Berberidaceae: Barberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Podophyllum peltatum May Apple or Mandrake. [Podophyllum resin or podophyllin from roots and rhizomes; used as an emetic and cathartic; the antineoplasmic glucoside called podophyllotoxin is used in chemotherapy treatment for certain tumors.] Berberis aquifolium Oregon Grape [The berries of several North American species are used in jams and pies; berries of several Middle Eastern species are dried and used like raisins.] Berberis spp. Barberry. [Alternate host of wheat rust (Puccinia graminis), a serious fungus disease of wheat.] See Oregon Grape & Middle East Dried Barberries 19. Betulaceae: Birch Family Back To Alphabet Table Betula spp. Birch. [Beautiful closed-grain hardwood.] Corylus spp. (C. americana & C. cornuta) Hazelnut or Filbert See The American Filbert Or Hazelnut In Its Leafy Involucre See Noteworthy Plants Article About Filbert-Rubber Tree Hybrid 20. Bignoniaceae: Bignonia Family Back To Alphabet Table Jacaranda mimosifolia Jacaranda Tabebuia serratifolia Trumpet Tree or Pao d' Arco [South American hardwood lumber.] T. impetiginosa Pao d' Arco [Herb from inner bark used for immune stimulant.] Parmentiera edulis Guachilote [An interesting cauliflorous fruit related to the calabash.] See Article About Wind Dispersal in Bignonia Family See Photos of Wind Dispersal In The Bignonia Family See Amazing Cauliflorous Fruits Of Parmentiera edulis 21. Bixaceae: Annatto Family Back To Alphabet Table Bixa orellana Achiote or Annatto [Popular red dye (bixin) used for coloring butter and cheeses; dye derived from seeds of spiny red fruits; also used for body paint by South American Indians; chemically similar to beta carotene and may protect skin from UV light.] See Photos Of Achiote (Annatto) Seeds and Fruits 22. Bombacaceae: Bombax Family Back To Alphabet Table Ceiba pentandra Kapok [Silky hairs from capsule; used for waterproof fillers.] Chorisia speciosa Floss Silk Tree Ochroma pyramidale Balsa. [Specific gravity of only 0.19.] Durio zibethinus Durian [An immense, malodorous, spiny fruit from Malaysia.] Pachira aquatica Guiana Chestnut [Large woody seed capsule with edible seeds.] See The Enormous, Spiny Durian Fruits See Large Fruit Of The Guiana Chestnut Cottony Fibers Of Kapok & Floss Silk Tree See The Tropical American Balsa Tree 23. Boraginaceae: Borage Family Back To Alphabet Table Alkanna tinctoria) Dyer's Bugloss [Roots a source of the deep red phenolic dye alkannin (alkanet) used on textiles, vegetable oils, medicines and wine; commonly used today as a food coloring.] Cordia sebestena Ziricote [This Caribbean tree is also known as cericote and geiger tree; the beautiful, dark wood is used in wood carving.] C. subcordata Kou [A Polynesian species with a beautiful, dark-grained hardwood used in wood carving.] Borago officinalis Borage [Leaves & flowers eaten in salads and brewed into tea.] Echium vulgare Viper's Bugloss [Blue flowers added to salads and cooked like spinach.] E. amoenum Gaozaban [Flowers used for a popular medicinal tea in Iran; a rich source of antioxidants, including rosmarinic acid and bioflavonoids.] See Beautiful Ziricote Wood Carvings Medicinal Teas Made From Borago & Echium 24. Brassicaceae: Mustard Family (Cruciferae) Back To Alphabet Table Armoracia lapathifolia (A. rusticana) Horseradish [Pungent relish obtained from the large taproot; a delicious condiment with meat and seafood.] Eutrema wasabi (Wasabia japonica) Japanese Horeseradish or Wasabi [The fleshy rhizome is the source of the green paste called "wasabi" that is commonly served with sashimi (raw fish) in Japan.] Lepidium meyenii (also L. peruvianum) Maca [A wild mustard native to the Andes of South America; the dried, radishlike roots are cooked to form a sweet, aromatic porridge called mazamorra; powdered maca root is sold as a nutritious herb and food supplement; nineteen species of Lepidium are native and naturalized in California.] Brassica campestris (B. rapa ssp. sylvestris) Field Mustard [A common weed in the western U.S.] B. nigra (Black Mustard) & B. alba (White Mustard) [Seeds used for mustard condiment; black mustard is a common weedy species in San Diego County; mustard gas is a synthetic chemical containing sulfur and chlorine, it is not made from mustard seeds.] B. rapa [Rapifera Group] Turnip [Edible root; sometimes referred to as B. campestris; turnip greens from edible leaves; n=10.] B. rapa [Chinensis Group] Bok Choy (Pak-choi). [Cultivated in Asia for succulent leaves.] B. rapa [Pekinensis Group] Chinese Cabbage B. napus Rapeseed Oil and Canola Oil [Unsaturated oil from seeds; 3rd most important edible oil in U.S. after soybean & cottonseed oils.] B. oleracea [Includes following varieties: cabbage (leafy head), kale (non-heading leafy sprout), collards (nonheading leafy sprout), broccoli (immature inflorescence and stalk or peduncle), cauliflower (immature inflorescence), brussels sprouts (tall-stemmed cabbage with small edible heads or buds along stem), kohlrabi (enlarged, edible, basal stem above the ground); all varieties with n=9 and 2n=18; broccoflower a hybrid between broccoli and cauliflower.] B. napobrassica Rutabaga [Tetraploid hybrid between cabbage (n=9) and turnip (n=10); resulting fertile polyploid with 38 chromosomes, 2 sets of cabbage chromosomes (9 + 9) and 2 sets of turnip chromosomes (10 + 10).] Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (Nasturtium officinale) Water Cress [An aquatic weed in southern California; edible leaves.] Isatis tinctoria Woad [Important blue dye used in Europe during 1500s and 1600s; the glucoside dye indican in leaves; one of dyes used by Robin Hood's men for their green clothing.] Raphanus sativus Radish [A very common weed in San Diego County; edible taproot with many varieties, including white and red radishes; giant oriental radishes 4 feet long and 40 pounds; the large Asian radish called "daikon" belongs to the Longipinnata group of radishes.] Note: The bigeneric hybrid (Raphanobrassica) or Rabbage is a cross between the radish (Raphanus n=9) and cabbage (Brassica n=9). The diploid hybrid has two sets of chromosomes, one set (R) from the radish parent and one set (C) from the cabbage parent. [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Since each set includes 9 chromosomes, the diploid rabbage has a total of 18 chromosomes. The diploid hybrid (RC) is sterile because the radish and cabbage sets of chromosomes are not completely homologous, and fail to pair up during synapsais of meiosis I. A fertile tetraploid (4n=36) hybrid (RRCC) has also been developed. It produces viable gametes and seeds because the radish chromosomes have another radish set to pair up with (RR), and the cabbage chromosomes have another set to pair up with (CC). Unfortunately this wonder plant has the leaves of the radish and the roots of the cabbage. See Brief Discussion About Monounsaturated Canola Oil See Kohlrabi, Broccoflower, Brussels Sprouts, & Rutabaga Bok Choy: A Leafy Mustard Commonly Cultivated In Asia See Massive Taproot Of Wild Radish In San Diego County See The Crispy Red Radish Cultivar Of The Wild Radish See The Large, White Japanese Radish Called Daikon See The Large Taproot Used In Spicy Horseradish Sauce Water Cress: Naturalized Vegetable In Southern California Maca: A South American Lepidium With An Edible Root See Photograph Of A Field Of Woad In Eastern Oregon 25. Bromeliaceae: Pineapple Family Back To Alphabet Table Ananas comosus Pineapple [Also fibers from leaves.] Tillandsia usneoides Spanish Moss [Southeastern U.S.] See Pineapple Plants On The Island Of Kauai 26. Burseraceae: Torchwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Boswellia carteri Frankincense. [Resin obtained from bark.] Commiphora abyssinica Myrrh Protium copal Guatemalan Incense Bursera simaruba Gumbo Limbo B. odorata and B. microphylla Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see another elephant tree (Pachycormus discolor) in Anacardiaceae.] Photos Of Resins And Incenses From Plants 27. Cactaceae: Cactus Family Back To Alphabet Table Opuntia spp. Prickly Pear. [Stem segments edible and called "nopales" in Mexico; ripened fruit called "tuna" or "pitaya dulce."] Opuntia ficus-indica and other spp. Source of the brilliant red cochineal dye [Actual dye from the red body fluids of cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus), a homopteran related to aphids, scale insects and mealy bugs; female cochineal insects are brushed from the cactus pads, dried, and pigments extrated from dried bodies; one pound of dye represents about 70,000 insects; source of carmine red stain used in microbiology classes; cactus were introduced into Australia for this dye with disastrous consequences; by 1925, 60 million acres of valuable range land covered by prickly pear cactus.] Hylocereus undatus Dragon Fruit [Sweet fruit similar in flavor to lime and kiwi fruit.] Lophophora williamsii Peyote. [Source of alkaloid mescaline.] Trichocereus pachanoi San Pedro Cactus [Another South American source of mescaline.] See The WAYNE'S WORD Alkaloid Article See Photos of Peyote and San Pedro Cactus See Photos of Cochineal Insect On A Cactus See Fruit & Edible Stems (Nopales) Of Opuntia See The Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus undatus) Camelliaceaeae: Camellia Family See Theaceae 28. Cannabaceae: Hops Family Back To Alphabet Table Cannabis sativa Indian Hemp or Marijuana [Resinous flowers and buds of female plant used medicinally and for casual smoking; resin contains several phenolic cannabinoids, including THC; important source of bast fibers from male plants; these plants occasionally sprout from seeds in well-watered, rural areas, such as the Palomar College campus.] Humulus lupulus Hop Vine [Female inflorescences (hops) added to beer to clarify the brew, prevent bacterial action and to improve flavor.] Information About THC From The Female Cannabis Indian Hemp As A Source Of Bast Fibers For Textiles See A Hop Vine And The Hops Used To Make Beer 29. Cannaceae: Canna Family Back To Alphabet Table Canna indica Indian Shot [Round, hard, black seeds used in botanical jewelry.] C. edulis Achira [Grown in Andes for starchy, tuberous rhizome.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Indian Shot 30. Capparaceae: Caper Family Back To Alphabet Table Capparis spinosa Capers [Mediterranean shrub with tasty flower buds used for flavorings, relishes and sauces.] See Tasty Flower Buds Called Capers 31. Caprifoliaceae: Honeysuckle Family Back To Alphabet Table Sambucus spp. Elderberry 32. Caricaceae: Papaya Family Back To Alphabet Table Carica papaya Papaya [Delicious cauliflorous fruit planted throughout the tropics.] See Cauliflorous Papaya Fruits See Delicious Ripe Papaya Fruit Celastraceae: Staff-Tree Family Back To Alphabet Table Catha edulis Khat [Tree native to Arabia & South Africa; leaves contain the stimulant alkaloids cathine & cathinone; fresh leaves chewed and used for tea by inhabitants of this region.] See Images Of Khat (Catha edulis) 33. Chenopodiaceae: Goosefoot Family Back To Alphabet Table Beta vulgaris Beets [Other varieties include sugar beets and Swiss chard; sweet taproot used for beets and sugar beets; tender leaves used for Swiss chard.] Chenopodium album Lamb's Quarters [An edible weed in California; tender leaves cooked and eaten like spinach.] C. quinoa Quinoa [South American herb with edible seeds that are cooked and eaten like a cereal grain; used by native people since pre-Columbian times.] Spinacia oleracea Spinach [Leaves consumed through pipe by Popeye; very nourishing vegetable rich in iron and folic acid.] Family also includes Russian thistle or tumbleweed (Salsola tragus) and halophytic salt marsh species, such as pickleweed (Salicornia). See Photo Of Beets & Swiss Chard See Photo Of Fresh Spinach Leaves See Photo Of Fresh Lamb's Quarters See The Grainlike Seeds Of Quinoa 34. Chrysobalanaceae: Chrysobalanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Chrysobalanus icaco Coco Plum [A shrub or small tree native to the American tropics with a sweet, plumlike fruit.] See Photo Of Coco Plum In Belize Clavicipitaceae: Ergot Family Back To Alphabet Table Claviceps purpurea Ergot [A grain fungus infecting rye and related grasses; the source of synthetic LSD and several important vasconstricting alkaloids such as ergotamine.] See The Infamous Ergot Fungus On Rye Grass Clusiaceae: Clusia Family See Guttiferae Combretaceae: Combretum Family Back To Alphabet Table Anogeissus latifolia Gum Ghatti [A natural gum from the sap of a tree native to dry, deciduous forests of India and Sri Lanka; the common name "ghatti" is derived from the word "ghat" or mountain pass; this gum was originally carried by people over mountain passes or "ghats" to ports in India; the gum has properties intermediate between gum arabic and karaya gum; because it is a superior oil emulsifier with a higher viscosity, it is used in liquid and paste waxes and for fat soluble vitamins. Terminalia catappa Tropical Almond [Malaysian tree naturalized along seashores of the Old and New World tropics, including Florida and the Hawaiian Islands; the oval, flattened, one-seeded fruit is commonly dispersed by ocean currents; the seed superficially resembles an almond and is eaten by natives. Compositae: Sunflower Family See Asteraceae 35. Convolvulaceae: Morning Glory Family Back To Alphabet Table Turbina corymbosa and Ipomoea tricolor Ololiuqui [New World morning glories with seeds containing the alkaloid ergine (d-lysergic acid amide), better known as natural LSD.] Ipomoea batatas Sweet Potato [Edible, fascicled storage roots; many delicious varieties, including red "yams" and white sweet potatoes.] Ipomoea aquatica Water Spinach [A popular, aquatic green vegetable in Asian countries.] Note: True yams belong to the genus Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae). See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Morning Glories See Water Spinach: An Edible Aquatic Morning Glory See Noteworthy Plants Article About True Yams See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Alkaloids Cruciferae: Mustard Family See Brassicaceae 36. Cucurbitaceae: Gourd Family Back To Alphabet Table Cucurbita pepo Summer Squash [Many varieties.] C. maxima Winter Squash [Many varieties.] C. moschata Butternut Squash Note: Many pumpkins are varieties of C. pepo; however, the largest pumpkins probably come from C. maxima. C. mixta (C. argyrosperma) Green-Striped Cushaws C. ficifolia Malabar Gourd Sechium edule Chayote Luffa aegyptiaca and L. acutangula Luffa Sponge Cucumis melon Melon [Many fabulous cultivars.] C. sativus Cucumber C. dipsaceus Teasel Gourds C. metuliferus Horned Cucumber Citrullus lanatus var. citroides Citron Melon Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus Watermelon Momordica charantia Bitter Melon Siraitia grosvenorii (Thladiantha grosvenorii) Luo Han Kuo or Buddha's Fruit [A small Asian gourd with an extremely sweet pulp; a glycoside in the fruit is 150 times sweeter than sucrose and may have economic potential as a non-caloric sugar substitute.] Lagenaria siceraria Hard-Shelled Gourds [Many shapes and sizes.] See WAYNE'S WORD Gourd Article See Buddha's Fruit (Luo Han Kuo) Gourd Family Fruits: Squash & Melons Cucumber Pickles & Teasel Gourd See Dried Gourd Strips Use For Food See The Unusual One-Seeded Chayote 37. Cupressaceae: Cypress Family Back To Alphabet Table Juniperus spp. Junipers (e.g. J. communis) [Berries (cones) used to flavor gin; sloe gin flavored with sloe plum (Prunus spinosa).] Cupressus spp. Cypress [10 endemic species in California; distributed throughout the state in arboreal islands; cones, foliage & bark variation in populations due to selection (glandular vs. eglandular foliage) and genetic drift.] Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Port Orford Cedar Calocedrus decurrens Incense Cedar Thuja plicata Western Red Cedar Cupressocyparis leylandii Leyland Cypress [A bigeneric hybrid between Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) and Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). There are other species used for lumber often called cedars. Genetic Variation In California Cypress 38. Cycadaceae: Cycad Family Back To Alphabet Table Cycas revoluta Sago Palm [Seeds eaten fresh and roasted; ground seeds should be thoroughly washed because they contain cycasin, a potent carcinogen; the heart of the trunk is baked and eaten, and is the source of sago, a starchy material also obtained from the central pith of palm trunks; sago starch is used in cooking and baking, like the starchy rhizomes of arrowroot (Marantiaceae) and achira (Cannaceae).] C. circinalis [The large seeds used as in C. revoluta.] Note: Seeds of additional species of cycads are used for food, including the African genus Encephalartos in the family Zamiaceae; in tropical and temperate climates, cycads are used extensively in landscaping. See The Seeds Of Cycas circinalis 39. Cyperaceae: Sedge Family Back To Alphabet Table Cyperus papyrus Papyrus [Fibers used in paper making.] Eleocharis dulcis Water Chestnut [Edible, crunchy corms at base of stem.] 40. Cylanthaceae: Cyclanthus Family Back To Alphabet Table Carludovica palmata Panama Hat Palm. [Leaf fibers used to make famous Panama hats which are made in Ecuador.] See A Panama Hat Palm Growing Wild Davidsoniaceae: Davidson's Plum Family Back To Alphabet Table Davidsonia pruriens Davidson's Plum [A monotypic family containing a single species; the plum-like fruits hang in clusters that arise directly from the trunk (cauliflorous); although acidic, they are edible and make excellent jams and jellies.] See Photo Of The Davidson Plum Dilleniaceae: Dillenia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dillenia indica Chulta or Indian Apple [Fleshy fruit pulp is used in curries, jam and jellies.] See The Fruits & Distinctive Leaves Of Dillenia indica 41. Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea Family Back To Alphabet Table Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayensis Yams [Africa]; D. alata and D. esculenta Yams [Asia]; and D. trifida Yams [New World]. D. elephantipes Hottentot's Bread or Turtleback Plant D. bulbifera Air Potato See World's Largest Vegetable See Yams Named After Dioscorides 42. Dipterocarpaceae: Dipterocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gurjun Balsam Shorea spp. (Incl. S. aptera, S. hypochra, S. robusta & S. wiesneri) Dammars Dammars: East Indian and southeast Asian resins similar to copals. Like copals they are shiny and transparent when dry and are used extensively in the paint and varnish industry. 43. Ebenaceae: Ebony Family Back To Alphabet Table Diospyros ebenum Ebony D. kaki Japanese Persimmon D. digyna Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) D. virginiana Native Persimmon See Delicious, Ripe Persimmon Fruit See Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) See A Chart Of World's Hardwoods See "Elephant" Carved From Ebony 44. Elaeagnaceae: Oleaster Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian Olive [Yellow fruits eaten fresh and made into jellies.] E. philippinensis Lingaro [Pinkish-red, gland-dotted fruits are reportedly eaten in the Philippines.] E. pungens Silverberry [Fruits used for jams, soft drinks and liqueurs in Japan.] See The Unusual Gland-Dotted Fruits Of Lingaro See Variety Of Russian Olive Called Trebizond Date 45. Elaeocarpaceae: Elaeocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeocarpus grandis Blue Marble Tree [The fleshy drupes resemble deep blue marbles. They are reportedly eaten raw in Australia and Fiji. The drupe contains a woody, intricately sculptured endocarp that surrounds several small seeds. The endocarps are often strung into attractive necklaces and leis.] E. ganitrus (E. sphaericus) Rudraksha Bead. [The endocarps are known as "rudraksha beads," and were worn by Shiva worshippers at least since the 11th century.] Rudraksha Beads & Striking Fruits Of Blue Marble Tree Equisetaceae: Horsetail Family Back To Alphabet Table Equisetum arvense Common Horsetail [A tea and capsules made from the dried stems of this and other species are used to maintain a healthy urinary system; the high silicon content is reportedly beneficial for cartilage, ligament and bone repair.] Horsetail Tea For Repair Of Cartilage & Ligaments 46. Ericaceae: Heath Family Back To Alphabet Table Arbutus unedo Strawberry Tree [An interesting European fruit tree related to the madrone tree of Pacific northwestern U.S.] Erica arborea Briarwood [Mediterranean shrub with subterranean basal burl (lignotuber) that is fire-resistant and used for briarwood smoking pipes. ] Gaultheria procumbens Wintergreen [Oil from leaves.] Gaylussacia baccata Huckleberry Vaccinium spp. (V. corymbosum & V. angustifolium) Blueberry V. macrocarpon & V. oxycoccos Cranberry See Smoking Pipe Made From The Burl Of Briarwood See Huckleberry & Bearberry In Rocky Mountains See Hawaiian Huckleberry Near Rim Of Kilauea Crater See Cranberries, An Interesting Shrub Of Acid Bogs Strawberry Tree: An Interesting Fruit From Europe 47. Erythroxylaceae: Coca Family Back To Alphabet Table Erythroxylum coca Coca Shrub [Leaves source of the tropane alkaloid cocaine; not to be confused with the cocoa or cacao tree (Threobroma cacao) in the Sterculiaceae.] Information About The Tropane Alkaloid Cocaine 48. Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia Family Back To Alphabet Table Croton tiglium Croton [Croton oil from seeds; it is one of the most powerful purgatives known.] Aleurites moluccana Candlenut or Kukui Nut [Seeds rich in unsaturated oil; seeds polished and used for necklaces in Hawaii.] A. fordii Tung Oil [Outstanding unsaturated oil that dries fast and leaves a glossy finish on wood.] Sapium sebiferum Chinese Tallow Tree S. biloculare Arizona Jumping Bean Sebastiana pavoniana Mexican Jumping Bean Euphorbia pulcherrima Poinsettia Hippomane mancinella Manchineel Tree [Apple-like fruits poisoned Columbus' crew on his 2nd voyage to Caribbean in 1493.] Hura crepitans Monkey Pistol or Sandbox Tree [Interesting tropical tree with exploding seed capsules.] Cnidoscolus angustidens Mala Mujer [Painful plant with stinging trichomes similar to nettle but much worse!] Euphorbia antisyphilitica Candelilla Wax [From stems.] Hevea brasiliensis Para Rubber Tree [Most important source of natural rubber.] Manihot glaziovii Ceara Rubber Tree [Lesser known New World source of rubber latex.] M. esculenta Cassava [Tapioca from storage roots.] Ricinus communis Castor Bean [Castor oil from seeds; seeds also contain the protein ricin which is more poisonous gram for gram than cyanide or rattlesnake venom; grows wild in the western U.S.] Rubber From Heavea & Manihot glaziovii See Article About The Castor Bean Shrub See Article About Mexican Jumping Beans See Mala Mujer: Plant With Stinging Trichomes Manchineel Fruit That Poisoned Columbus' Crew See The Cassava Plant: Important Root Crop See Tung Oil Tree And Candlenut (Kukui Nuts) See Photos Of Candelilla And Candelilla Wax 49. Fabaceae: Pea Family (Leguminosae) Back To Alphabet Table Legumes containing water soluble gums and natural dyes: Acacia senegal Gum Arabic [From trunk.] Astragalus spp. (incl. A. gummifer) Gum Tragacanth [Spiny "locoweeds" of Near East and Asia Minor; especially Zagros Mountains of Western Iran; valuable white gum in stems.] Astragalus membranaceus Astagalus Root or Huang Ch'i [A Chinese Herbal Remedy For Boosting The Immune System.] Ceratonia siliqua Carob Tree [Pods ground into carob flour; also the source of locust bean gum.] Indigofera tinctoria Indigo [Beautiful blue dye from leaves.] Caesalpinia echinata Brazilwood [Red dye from heartwood; source of the histological stain brazilin; wood also used for violin bows; planted on campus; major factor in colonization of Brazil by Portuguese.] Caesalpinia sappan Sappanwood [Important red dye from heartwood before aniline dyes.] Haematoxylum campechianum Logwood [Valuable red heartwood dye during 1500s & 1600s; major factor in colonization of British Honduras by England which later became Belize; source of the histological stains hematoxylin and hematein.] Pterocarpus santalinus Red Sandalwood [Blood Red Dye From The Wood.] True gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), gum arabic from Acacia senegal, gum tragacanth from Astragalus gummifera, and algin from the giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), are complex polysaccharides (made of many sugar molecules joined together) and are used as emulsifiers and thickening agents. See The Carob Tree: A Cauliflorous Species See Photos Of Logwood Tree In Central America See Photo Of Brazilwood And Its Bright Red Dye Powdered Red Sandalwood: A Bright Red Dye Photos And Information About Gum Tragacanth Astragalus Root: Popular Chinese Herbal Remedy Inga edulis Ice Cream Bean Dipteryx odorata Tonka Bean [Seeds from the egg-shaped fruits of this tropical South American tree are used as a substitute for vanilla; the seeds contain the fragrant phenolic compound coumarin which is used in the perfume industry.] Glycyrrhiza glabra Licorice [From roots.] Pachyrhizus erosus Jicama [From large taproot.] Tamarindus indicus Tamarind Medicago sativa Alfalfa Trifolium pratense and T. repens Red and White Clover Melilotus albus, M. indicus and M officinalis White, Indian and Yellow Sweet Clover [Wet or moldy sweet clover contains the anticoagulant compound dicoumarin (a double phenolic ring); dicoumarin is used in rat poison; it is formed by the union of 2 single-ring coumarin molecules; coumarin is found in fresh clover & alfalfa and produces the aroma of new mown hay.] See Tonka Beans: A Source Of Fragrant Coumarin See The Legume Fruits Of The Tamarind Tree See The Tropical American Ice Cream Bean Many species in the legume family have edible seeds (beans) and pods. The following is only a partial list of the many species, some with dozens of cultivated varieties: Phaseolus lunatus (P. limensis) Lima Bean P. vulgaris Common Bean & Kidney Bean P. coccineus Red Runner Bean Faba vulgaris Fava Bean (Broad Bean) Glycine max (G. hispida) Soybean Lens culinaris (Lens esculenta) Lentil Pisum sativum Pea Vicia faba Broad Bean Cajanus cajan Pigeon Pea [Common vegetable seen in Caribbean marketplace.] Cicer arietinum Chick Pea (Garbanzo Bean) Vigna unguiculata Black-Eyed Pea (Cowpea, Southern Pea) V. angularis Chinese Red Bean (Azuki Bean) V. umbellata Rice Bean (Red Bean) V. radiata Mung Bean Canavalia gladiata Sword Bean C. ensiformis Jack Bean Arachis hypogaea Peanut See The Red Runner Bean Of Central America An Assortment Of Nineteen Varieties Of Beans See String Bean, Sugar Snap Pea & Snow Pea Fresh Green Pods Of The Popular Fava Bean Garbanza Bean (Chick Pea) And Mung Beans See Pods & Seeds Of The Soy Bean See Large Pod & Seeds Of The Sword Bean A Subterranean Peanut Out Of The Ground See More Photos Of The Peanut Plant Note: There are many tropical leguminous genera with beautiful seeds used for necklaces and bracelets, including Mucuna, Dioclea, Entada, Abrus, Rhynchosia, Erythrina, Adenanthera, Sophora and Ormosia. One example of a decorative bean is the circassian seed (Adenanthera pavonina), a magical bean from India that is commonly used in seed necklaces. See the Wayne's Word article about seed jewelry for more information and photos. See Article About Magical Beans From India See Wayne's Word Article About Seed Jewelry Copal Resins and Balsams [Balsams are highly aromatic oleoresins.]: Copaifera demeussei South African Copaifera Balsam C. reticulata& C. officinalis Central & South American Copaifera Balsams Myroxylon balsamum Balsum-of-Peru [Used in medicines, soaps and perfumes; gathered in Central America (El Salvador) by "balsameros."] Prioria copaifera Copaiba Balsam from Central America Hymenaea courbaril West Indian Locust [Source of copal varnish & incense.] Hymenaea verrucosum East African Copal See Noteworthy Plants Article About Prioria copaifera See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Resins and Amber 50. Fagaceae: Beech Family Back To Alphabet Table Castanea dentata Chestnut C. sativa European Chestnut Fagus grandiflora Beech Lithocarpus densiflora Tanbark Oak [Bark good source of tannin; tannins unite with certain proteins, such as those in animal skins, to form a strong, flexible, resistant, insoluble substance known as leather; i.e. tannins convert animal hides into leather.] Quercus spp. Oak [Beautiful open-grain, ring porous hardwood.] Quercus suber Cork Oak [Cork obtained from thick, outer bark; planted on Palomar College campus.] See Chestnuts Inside Their Spiny Involucre See The Mature Acorns Of The Cork Oak See Article About Wood Products And Cork Flacourtiaceae: Flacourtia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dovyalis abyssinica Abyssinian Gooseberry D. caffra Kei Apple or Umkokolo D. hebecarpa Ceylon Gooseberry or Ketembilla [Note: The Florida gooseberry or tropical apricot is an artificial hybrid between D. abyssinica and D. hebecarpa.] Flacourtia cataphracta Runealma Plum F. indica Madagascar Plum or Ramontchi F. inermis Martinique Plum or Lovi-Lovi F. rukam Rukam or Indian Prune Pangium edule Buah Keluak or Kepayang [Also known as the kepayang tree of Indonesia & Malaysia; oily, hard-shelled seeds superficially resemble Brazil nuts; meaty seeds are edible after poisonous hydrocyanic acid is removed by soaking and boiling them in water; fermented seeds (called kluwak nuts) become chocolate-brown, greasy and slippery; cooked seeds are used in a number of Malaysian and Indonesian dishes.] See Photo Of Peeled & Packaged Kluwak Nuts 51. Gelidiaceae & Gracilariaceae: Agar Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Gelidium cartilagineum (and other species) Gelidium [An intertidal red alga used for agar.] Gracilaria spp. Gracilaria [Another intertidal red alga used for agar.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Agar is a phycocolloid obtained from several genera of red algae, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. Agar gels have a superior capacity for changing into a liquid when heated, and then readily cooling back into a gel. They are unsurpassed for nutrient media used for tissue culture and in bacteriology (microbiology). See Photo Of Gelidium pulcrum 52. Gigartinaceae: Gigartina Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This is a family of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Chondrus crispus Irish Moss [An intertidal red alga species used for carrageenan.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus). Agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. See Photo Of Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus) Gramineae: Grass Family See Poaceae Grossulariaceae: Gooseberry Family See Saxifragaceae 53. Guttiferae (Clusiaceae): Garcinia Family Back To Alphabet Table Mammea americana Mammee Apple Clusia rosea Pitch Apple [Interesting strangler tree resembling a strangler fig.] Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen [Considered the "queen of tropical fruits."] Garcinia dulcis [Fruit similar to mangosteen, except the fleshy fruit has a yellow interior.] Garcinia hanburyi & G. morella [A yellow dye called gamboge is obtained from the resin.] See A Mammee Apple From Island Of St. John See The Mangosteen: Queen Of Tropical Fruits A Tasty Mangosteen Relative: Garcinia dulcis See Clusia Rosea: A Strangler That Is Not A Fig 54. Hamamelidaceae: Witch Hazel Family Back To Alphabet Table Hamamelis virginiana Witch Hazel [Witch hazel oil, outstanding treatment for hemorrhoids.] Liquidambar styraciflua Sweet Gum See Foliage & Seed Capsules Of Witch Hazel Hydrophyllaceae: Waterleaf Family Back To Alphabet Table Eriodictyon californicum Yerba Santa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; leaves made into a tea and poultice to relieve colds, bronchitis, rheumatism and muscular aches & pains.] See Yerba Santa In San Diego County 55. Hypericaceae: St. John's-Wort Family Back To Alphabet Table Hypericum perforatum St. John's-wort [Flowers used as herb to treat symtoms of mild depression and mood swings; a European wildflower that is naturalized throughout North America; there are also native species of Hypericum in North America, including two species in San Diego County, California.] St. John's-Wort: An Herb To Treat Depression Illiciaceae: Star Anise Family Back To Alphabet Table Illicium verum Star Anise [A tree native to southeast Asia and grown commercially in China for its aromatic seeds and fruits; licorice flavor used in Asian cuisine and in medicines; primary ingredient of Tamiflu used to treat the dreaded avian flu of humans .] See The Unusual Fruits Of Star Anise 56. Iridaceae: Iris Family Back To Alphabet Table Crocus sativus Saffron. [Yellowish-orange dye from elongate stigmas and tips of styles; saffron contains the glycoside crocin (derived from the diterpene crocetin); 4,000 stigmas yields one ounce of dye.] See Saffron: Ground Up Autumn Crocus Stigmas 57. Juglandaceae: Walnut Family Back To Alphabet Table Juglans cinerea Butternut J. nigra Black Walnut J. regia English Walnut Carya illinoensis Pecan C. ovata Shagbark Hickory Note: The "hican" is a hybrid resulting from a cross between the pecan (Carya illinoensis) and the shagbark hickory (C. ovata). Go To Nut Photos And See Pecans In Their Husks See The Black Walnut And A Related Tiny Walnut 58. Krameriaceae: Krameria Family Back To Alphabet Table Krameria grayi and K. parvifolia Krameria [Intricately branched, thorny shrubs of the Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico; partially parasitic on roots of adjacent shrubs; spiny fruits are a tenacious hitchhiker.] See Tenacious Hitchhikers Of The Colorado Desert Labiatae: Mint Family See Lamiaceae 59. Lactobacillaceae: Lactobacillus Family Back To Alphabet Table [Also The Streptococcaceae, Propionibacteriaceae & Acetobacteraceae.] Lactobacillus acidophilus Acidophilus Milk Bacteria [This bacteria converts lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid, thus making it more digestible to lactose intolerant people.] L. bulgaricus Yogurt Bacteria [A bacteria used in most yogurt and some cheese cultures; L. delbrueckii is also listed for yogurt.] L. casei Cheese Bacteria [Promote the formation of cheese due to their action on milk protein (casein).] L. plantarum Pickle Bacteria. [A lactic acid bacteria used in vegetable fermentations to produce pickles and fermented cabbage called sauerkraut.] Streptococcus thermophilus in the Streptococcaceae is another yogurt-forming bacteria. Streptococcus species are also used in the production of sour cream, butter, buttermilk and cheese. The propionic acid which produces the odor and flavor of Swiss cheese comes from Propionibacterium freudenreichii ssp. shermanii of the Propionibacteriaceae. The unique flavor and odor of limburger cheese is produced by Brevibacterium linens of the Brevibacteriaceae. And the acetic acid of vinegar is produced by vinegar bacteria (Acetobacter aceti) of the Acetobacteraceae. 60. Lamiaceae: Mint Family (Labiatae) Back To Alphabet Table Lavandula officinalis (L. angustifolia ssp. angustifolia) Lavender Marrubium vulgare Horehound [Common in local hills near Palomar College.] Melissa officinalis Balm or Lemon Balm [Leaves used as a flavoring for salads, soups and tea.] Mentha piperita Peppermint M. spicata Spearmint [Wild along San Luis Rey River Of San Diego County.] Monarda didyma Bee Balm or Bergamot [Dried leaves and flowers used to make an aromatic tea; other species also used, including M. citriodora (lemon bee balm or lemon bergamot) and M. austromontana (Mexican bergamot); Note: The bergamot used in Earl Gray tea comes from Citrus bergamia (Rutaceae).] Nepeta cataria Catnip Origanum vulgare Oregano O. majorana Marjoram Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary [Planted on campus.] Salvia officinalis Sage [Also S. clevelandii in San Diego County.] S. columbariae Chia [Common in local hills.] Thymus vulgaris Thyme Ocimum basilicum Basil Satureja hortensis Savory Mesona chinensis Jellywort [Plants are boiled in water and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] See The Delicious Cooking Herb Called Rosemary See Photographs Of Sages (Salvia) In California Lavender: Source Of Lavender Oil For Perfumes Catnip: An Interesting Herb That Drives Cats Crazy Lemon Balm: A Fragrant Herb Used As A Flavoring Basil: A Fragrant Herb That Enhances Tomatoes Horehound: An Herb Used To Make A Unique Candy See Grass Jelly From Jellywort (Mesona chinensis) 61. Laminariaceae & Lessoniaceae: Kelp Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of brown algae in the Division Phaeophyta: Macrocystis pyrifera Giant Kelp [A large kelp or seaweed growing in the kelp beds just beyond the surf zone along the coast of southern California; the large stipes and blades of this species are harvested by kelp cutters and are an important source of algin.] Laminaria spp. Kelp. [Another species of brown alga that commonly grows in the intertidal zone. This species is harvested for food and algin.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Alginates (also called algin) are obtained from species of Laminaria and another macroscopic brown algae called giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) that grows along the coast of southern California. In some fast food restaurants, shakes without the word "milk" were thickened with algin. For this reason they were called shakes rather than milk shakes. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), and agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Note: some species of brown algae kelp or seaweed are cooked and used for soups in Japan. Pelagophycus: A Giant Kelp Off The Coast Of San Diego See Giant Bladder Kelp: The Primary Source Of Algin See Dried Kelp (Laminaria) Used For Food In Japan 62. Lauraceae: Laurel Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinnamomum camphora Camphor Tree [Camphor oil from wood, twigs & leaves.] C. zeylanicum Cinnamon [From bark.] Laurus nobilis Sweet Bay Persea americana Avocado or Alligator Pear Sassafras albidum Sassafras [Spicy root bark used in teas, medicines and carbonated beverages, including some recipes for root beer; one of the primary flavorings of old-fashioned root beer is sarsaparilla from the roots of Smilax officinalis, a member of the lily family; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings.] Umbellularia californica California Bay Tree or Oregon Myrtle See Leaves & Fruit Of California Bay Tree See The Trunk Of A large Cinnamon Tree Branches & Products From Camphor Tree See The Autumn Foliage Of Sassafras Tree See Delicious Fruits Of The Avocado Tree Lecanoraceae & Umbilicariaceae: Edible Rock Lichens Back To Alphabet Table Lecanora esculenta Schirsad [Also thought to be the Biblical "mana" by some scholars.] Umbilicaria phaea Rock Tripe [Several species from the northern latitudes are eaten.] Rock lichens have played an important role in the survival of native people and explorers. In addition to providing food for their animals, Indians, Eskimos and Laplanders eat certain lichens. Leafy lichens called rock tripes (Umbilicaria) are eaten raw and are boiled into a thick, mucilaginous soup. Rock tripes are also added to salads or deep fried, and are considered a delicacy in Japan. Throughout history, peasants of Persia have avoided mass starvation by eating the abundant crustose rock lichen Lecanora esculenta. This lichen readily becomes detached in small patches and is blown off the rocks by wind, often accumulating in crevices and under shrubs. It is mixed with meal and made into a kind of bread called "schirsad" in Turkey and northern Iran. In fact, some biblical scholars think this lichen may have been the "manna" which saved the starving Israelites during their exodus from Egypt. Another source of manna in the arid Middle East desert is the dried sap exudate from several species of trees and shrubs inhabiting this region. Rock Tripes Growing On Granite Boulder Crustose Rock Lichens & Desert Varnish 63. Lecythidaceae: Lecythis Family Back To Alphabet Table Bertholletia excelsa Brazil Nut [A giant tree of the Amazon rain forest in South America; the hard brown seeds are produced in large, thick-walled capsules weighing up to 5 pounds; seeds contain 65% to 70% unsaturated fat and literally burn like a candle.] Lecythis ollaria Paradise Nut [Another giant rain forest tree with seeds produced in a thick, woody, potlike capsule.] Couroupita guianensis Cannonball Tree [Large, fragrant, bat-pollinated blossoms develop on woody stalks that push out of the main trunk; the flowers give rise to cannonball-like fruits up to 8 inches in diameter that remain attached to the tangled flower stalks.] See Photos Of Brazil Nuts & Their Pod See Photo Of The Amazing Paradise Nut See Photo Of Remarkable Cannonball Tree Leguminosae: Pea Family See Fabaceae 64. Lemnaceae: Duckweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Lemna spp. Duckweed [Used for waste water treatment; also food for livestock and fish (aquaculture); important organisms in freshwater ecosystems.] Wolffia spp. Watermeal [Potential high protein food source for people; does not contain calcium oxalate crystals as in Lemna; W. globosa is khai-nam (water-eggs) of Thailand, eaten by people as high protein supplement to their diet.] See Mr. Wolffia's On-Line Lemnaceae Home Page Lichen Dyes and Perfumes See Roccellaceae 65. Liliaceae: Lily Family Back To Alphabet Table Aloe vera (A. barbadensis) Aloe [Gelatinous glycoside called aloin from succulent leaves used in soothing lotions, hemorrhoidal salves and shampoos.] Asparagus officinalis Asparagus [Delicious, edible sprouting stems; stems contain methyl mercaptans which cause significant odor in urine when broken down by some people; genus also includes the asparagus "ferns" used in landscaping.] Chlorogalum pomeridianum Soap Plant [In local hills.] Colchicum autumnale Autumn Crocus [Alkaloid colchicine from the bulblike corms.] Smilax officinalis and other tropical American species. Sarsaparilla. [Flavoring from dried roots widely used in carbonated beverages and medicines; along with wintergreen (and sometimes ginger) this was the primary flavoring used in the original recipes for old-fashioned root beer; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings; several species of this trailing perennial herb are native throughout North America.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Soap Lilies See Garden Asparagus Plants Growing On Maui See Autumn Crocus: The Source Of Colchicine See An African Species Of Aloe (A. kedongensis) 66. Linaceae: Flax Family Back To Alphabet Table Linum usitatissimum Flax [Valuable stem fibers (bast fibers) used for linen; also source of linseed oil from seeds.] See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 67. Loganiaceae: Logania Family Back To Alphabet Table Buddleia davidii Butterfly Bush [Species of Buddleia are commonly grown as ornamentals for their showy clusters of blue and purple flowers; the fragrant flowers attract a variety of colorful adult butterflies.] Fagraea berteroana [Native tree in Australia and Pacific Islands; Fragrant flowers used in perfumes and leis.] Strychnos nux-vomica Strychnine Tree [Alkaloid strychnine from seeds.] S. toxifera [One of the species containing a form of the alkaloid curarine which is used as an arrow poison.] Note: Curare also obtained from bark and stems of Chondrodendron tomentosum (Menispermaceae). This is the source of curare for the Botany 115 Plant Family Exam #4. See Article About The Beautiful Butterfy Bush See Leaves and Fruit of Fagraea berteroana 68. Malpighiaceae: Malpighigia Family Back To Alphabet Table Malpighia glabra Barbados Cherry [Bright red, cherry-like fruits often seen at Caribbean marketplace.] 69. Malvaceae: Mallow Family Back To Alphabet Table Gossypium spp. Cotton [Epidermal hairs on seeds; different varieties have different lengths of hairs or staple; fruit called a boll; also cottonseed oil; although called a fiber, cotton is not derived from fiber cells; the two primary old world species are the diploids G. arboreum and G. herbaceum while the main domesticated New World species are the tetraploids G. barbadense and G. hirsutum.] Hibiscus cannabinus Kenaf or Gambo Hemp [Yields stem fibers 5 to 10 ft. long.] H. tiliaceus Beach Hibiscus [Useful source of bast fibers for cordage.] H. esculentus (Abelmoschus esculentus) Okra [This vegetable is actually a fruit.] H. sabdariffa Sorrel and Roselle [Reddish capsules harvested at Christmas time in Dominica for a popular drink; roselle fibers similar to kenaf.] Malva sylvestris & possibly M. pseudolavatera High Mallow [The tender young leaves are eaten in salads and cooked like spinach; the purple flowers yield a natural coloring for drinks and herbal teas; the common weed called cheeseweed (M. parviflora) is also cooked and eaten as a vegetable.] Thespesia populnea Milo or Beach Hibiscus [Beautiful dark wood used for carvings and bowls.] See A Cotton Boll--Source Of Cotton Fibers See Beach Hibiscus Used For Its Bast Fibers See A Sorrel Plant In Full Bloom See Sorrel At Marketplace In Dominica See Milo: A Beautiful Polynesian Hardwood See Okra: A Vegetable That Is Also A Fruit See High Mallow (Malva pseudolavatera) 70. Marantiaceae: Arrowroot Family Back To Alphabet Table Maranta arundinacea West Indian Arrowroot [Starchy rhizomes used for food.] Powdered Caribbean Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) See Article About Another Arrowroot (Canna edulis) 71. Martyniaceae: Martynia Family Back To Alphabet Table Proboscidea parviflora and other spp. Devil's Claws [Seed capsules used for food and in North American Indian basketry.] See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Devil's Claws 72. Meliaceae: Mahogany Family Back To Alphabet Table Azadirachta india Neem Tree [Oil from seeds used in soaps, shampoos, skin care; leaves used in Indian foods.] Melia azedarach Chinaberry Tree [Commonly cultivated in southern California.] Swietenia macrophylla Honduras Mahogany S. mahogani West Indian Mahogany [Found in Florida Keys.] Sandoricum koetjape Santol or Kechapi [Malaysian tree with yellowish or reddish-brown, juicy fruits that smell like ripe peaches.] See Photo Of The Seldom-Seen Fruit Of Sandoricum koetjape 73. Menispermaceae: Moonseed Family Back To Alphabet Table Chondodendron tomentosum Curare [A deadly extract from the bark and stems of this Amazonian vine is used to coat the darts of blowguns.] Note: Extracts from species of Strychnos, including S. toxifera of the logania family (Loganiaceae), are also used for curare. Another potent alkaloid used to coat the darts of South American blowguns comes from the skin of poison dart frogs of the family Dendrobatidae. See The Amazonian Curare Vine See Colorful Poison Dart Frogs 74. Moraceae: Mulberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Artocarpus altilis (A. communis) Breadfruit A. heterophyllus Jackfruit Castilla elastica Panama Rubber Ficus carica Edible Fig [Hundreds of cultivated varieties, some requiring a pollinator wasp (incl. 'Smyrna' & 'Calimyrna') and some which are parthenocarpic, incl 'Mission' and 'Kadota'.] Ficus pumila Creeping Fig [Juice from the syconia is cooked and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] F. elastica India Rubber Tree F. religiosa [One of the trees inhabited by lac insect that produces shellac.] Broussonetia papyrifera Paper Mulberry [In Palomar College Arboretum; the bark is also used for tapa cloth.] Brosimum utile & B. alicastrum Milk Tree or Palo de Vaca [In Costa Rica, the milky sap is used by locals as a substitute for cream in their coffee.] Maclura pomifera Osage Orange [Hardest of all native hardwoods of eastern U.S.] Morus spp. Mulberry [Some with edible fruits including the black mulberry (M. nigra); M. alba primary food for silkworm.] Native to the Indo-Malaysian region, the jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is grown throughout the tropics for its pulpy, edible fruits which may reach nearly 3 feet (1 m) in length and weigh up to 75 pounds (34 kg). Jackfruit and its close relative, breadfruit (A. altilis), belong to the diverse Mulberry Family (Moraceae). You have probably heard of the story of Captain Bligh, who tried to bring a load of breadfruit cuttings from Tahiti to the Caribbean in 1789 aboard the H.M.S. Bounty. Enchanted with the Tahitian way of life, his crew mutinied on the voyage. See Photo Of An Amazing Breadfruit Tree In Tahiti See Photo Of An Amazing Jackfruit Tree In Hawaii See Comparison Photo Of A Breadfruit And A Jackfruit See Photo Of The Remarkable Fruit Of Osage Orange See Photograph Of The Very Delicious Black Mulberry Flowers & Multiple Fruit Of The Pakistan Mulberry Silk From A Caterpillar That Eats Mulberry Leaves Photograph Of The Milk Tree (Brosimum) In Costa Rica The Creeping Fig--One Of The Sources Of Grass Jelly Read About Delicious, Wasp-Pollinated Calimyrna Figs Photo Of Seed Lac: Resinous Excretion Of Lac Insect Moringaceae: Moringa Family Back To Alphabet Table Moringa oleifera (M. pterygosperma) Horseradish Tree [This tree is called "malungay" in Asian countries; a small, soft-wooded tree native to India but widely cultivated throughout the tropics; the long beanlike pods are used in soups and curries, and are made into pickles; the young, tender, mustard-favored leaves are eaten raw in salads, cooked as potherbs and placed in soups and curries; even the oily seeds are roasted or fried and apparently taste like peanuts; the pungent root is used as a substitute for the true horseradish of the mustard family or Brassicaceae.] See Two Trees Related To The Horseradish Tree 75. Musaceae: Banana Family Back To Alphabet Table Musa x paradisiaca (M. sapientum) Common Banana [A triploid, seedless hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.] M. acuminata Plantain M. textilis Manila hemp or Abaca [Important leaf fiber; source of manilla rope.] Genetics Of Triploid Seedless Banana See Article About Plant Textile Fibers See Photo Of The Manila Hemp Plant 76. Myristicaceae: Nutmeg Family Back To Alphabet Table Myristica fragrans Nutmeg [Large seed is the nutmeg of commerce; reddish outer layer called aril is the source of the spice known as mace.] See Nutmeg Fruit: The Source Of Two Spices 77. Myrtaceae: Myrtle Family Back To Alphabet Table Eucalyptus camaldulensis Red Gum [Source of gum kino, a phenolic compound.] E. globulus Blue Gum [Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) from leaves.] Pimenta dioica Allspice or Pimento [From dried unripe fruits.] Pimenta racemosa Bay Rum Tree [Essential oil from leaves used in cologne.] Psidium guajava Guava [Fruit rich in vitamins A, B, and C.] P. cattleianum Strawberry Guava [Planted on campus.] Feijoa sellowiana Pineapple Guava [Planted on Campus.] Syzygium (Eugenia) aromaticum Clove [From unopened flower buds.] Syzygium (Eugenia) malaccensis Mountain or Malay Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) jambos Malayan Rose Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) paniculatum Australian Brush Cherry Eugenia uniflora Surinam Cherry Myrciaria cauliflora Jaboticaba [Cauliflorous tree from Brazil with purple, grapelike berries that develop from the trunk and limbs.] Leptospermum scoparium New Zealand Tea Plant [Leaves brewed into a tea to provide vitamin C for Captain Cook's crew.] See Unusual Cauliflorous Berries Of Jaboticaba Tree See Tropical Allspice Berries And Bay Rum Tree See Cloves: Flower Buds From The Spice Islands See Guava, Strawberry Guava & Pineapple Guava Fruits See The Fruit And Flower Of Rose Apple Or Malabar Plum See The Fruit Of The Mountain Apple Or Malay Apple See The Fruit Of The South American Surinam Cherry See The Colorful, Insipid Fruits Of Australian Brush Cherry See New Zealand Tea Plant Used By Captain Cook's Crew The name "gum" can be traced back to the voyage of Captain James Cook to the South Pacific in 1770. Captain Cook discovered the east coast of Australia, called New Holland at that time. In one harbor, the ship's naturalists found so many unusual and beautiful plants that they named it Botany Bay. Eight years later, a fleet of eleven English ships reached Botany Bay with 1,530 people, 736 of them convicts. This marked the establishment of England's most important prison camp of the nineteenth century, and the European settlement of a vast land called Australia. The actual discovery of the genus Eucalyptus is credited to the ship's botanist, Joseph Banks (later Sir Joseph Banks). One of the newly discovered species "red bloodwood" (E. gummifera) had a reddish gum exuding from its trunk, and the naturalists called it a "gum tree." Other species of eucalyptus with persistent bark fall into five additional groups, called ironbarks (bark hard and deeply fissured), peppermint barks (bark finely fibrous), stringy barks (bark long and fibrous), boxes (bark rough and fibrous), and bloodwoods (bark rough, cracked and scaly on trunk and large limbs). Another group of large trees, called ashes, have rough bark on the trunk but smoother bark on the branches. In fact, the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) rivals the California redwoods as the world's tallest trees. With about 500 described species dominating more than 80 percent of Australia's forests, it is convenient to categorize them within different groups based upon their bark type. In fact, one of the most striking species with thick, deeply furrowed, persistent black bark is the red ironbark (E. sideroxylon), commonly planted at Palomar College. In addition to tree forms, there are numerous drought resistant, shrubby eucalyptus called mallees. Some of these resprout from subterranean lignotubers like many of our chaparral shrubs. One of these (Eucalyptus macrocarpa) produces spectacular red blossoms and the largest seed capsules of any eucalyptus. Some mallees of parched desert regions store water in their roots, a fact well-known to Australian aborigines. See Spectacular Eucalyptus Macrocarpa in Full Bloom See The Fire-Adapted Lignotuber of a Chaparral Shrub See Photos Of Eucalyptus In Article About Hardwoods Chemically the eucalyptus "gums" are rich in tannins (kinotannic acid) and are similar to another phenolic compound called catechu. They are known in the trade as kinos or gum kinos and are used as tannins to convert animal hide into leather. One of the main Australian sources of kino is the common red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), naturalized throughout San Diego County. Kino gums are also used medicinally as astringents to relieve throat irritation, dysentery and diarrhoea. True polysaccharide gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), and chicle, a terpene gum from the latex sap of the sapodilla tree (Achras zapota), are chemically quite different. They all probably serve to seal off wounds and prevent bacterial and fungal infections. Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) is a volatile terpene compound (called an essential oil) which is distilled from the leaves of several species. It is used for flavorings, dentifrices, cough drops, and for the synthesis of menthol. The lemony fragrance from the leaves of lemon-scented gum (E. citriodora) is due to another volatile terpene called citronellal. One of the reasons that few plants will grow well beneath naturalized gum forests in southern California is that volatile terpenes from fallen leaves are leached into the soil, thereby inhibiting seed germination and growth of competing species. The wood of different species of eucalyptus varies considerably, from wood as soft as pines to very hard, close-grained wood as dense as oak and hickory. Eucalypts constitute most of the forest vegetation of Australia and are one of the most important hardwood timber resources in the world. There are a number of species that provide excellent lumber for furniture, wood-carving and construction, including karri (E. diversicolor), spotted gum (E. maculata), blackbutt (E. pilularis), and jarrah (E. marginata). In fact, jarrah is stronger and more durable than oak and resistant to termites and marine borers. During the late 1800s and early 1900s several species of gums (including E. camaldulensis and E. globulus) were extensively planted in California for lumber, firewood, windbreaks and railroad ties. Although the species selected for extensive plantings grew into forests very rapidly, the wood proved very undesirable for lumber and railroad ties because of extensive splitting during the drying process. Today, these extensive forests have forever changed the character of coastal southern and central California. Nelumbonaceae: Water Lotus Family Back To Alphabet Table Nelumbo nucifera Asian Water Lotus [The seeds are eaten raw and roasted; the thick, starchy rhizomes are boiled, stir-fried and pickled.] See Flowers, Receptacle & Seeds Of Water Lotus Nostocaceae: Nostoc Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Nostoc commune Star Jelly [A freshwater cyanobacterium that is eaten raw, dried, stir-fried and in soups. It is sold dried in Asian markets.] Nostoc flagelliforme Fat Choy or Fa Cai [A filamentous, terestrial cyanobacterium of northern and northwestern China; the Cantonese and Mandarin names mean "hair vegetable" because the hair-like strands resemble black hair when dry.] More Information About Fat Choy See Nostoc Balls In A Vernal Pool 78. Nyctaginaceae: Four O-Clock Family Back To Alphabet Table Bougainvillea glabra Bougainvillea Mirabilis laevis Wild Four O'Clock 79. Oleaceae: Olive Family Back To Alphabet Table Fraxinus spp. Ash [Beautiful light open-grain wood.] Jasminum officinale Jasmine [From flowers, used for perfume & teas.] Olea europaea Olive [Native to the Mediterranean region; fresh olives (drupes) are extremely bitter due to oleuropein, a phenolic glucoside; olives soaked in lye (sodium hydroxide) to remove the bitter oleuropein; olives picked green are oxidized in air to produce black color; green olives kept submerged will retain green color; pitted green olives often stuffed with pimento, a bright red Capsicum cultivar; unlike most unsaturated plant oils which come from seeds, monounsaturated olive oil is obtained from the pulp or mesocarp of the fruit; virgin olive oil is obtained from the 1st pressing.] Syringa vulgaris Lilac [Not the same as California lilac or Ceanothus.] Read About Monounsaturated Olive Oil See Canned & Mature Olives On Branch 80. Orchidaceae: Orchid Family Back To Alphabet Table Vanilla planifolia (V. fragrans) Vanilla [From fermented and dried seed capsules called vanilla beans.] V. pompona West Indian Vanilla Note: Imitation vanilla flavorings sold in markets are synthetic vanillin containing artificial food coloring & preservatives; vanillin is a phenolic compound derived from lignin. Photos & Information About The Vanilla Orchid Oscillatoriaceae: Oscillatoria Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Spirulina platensis Spirulina [A cyanobacterium found in alkaline and saline water; it is dried into a powder and sold as a nutritious, high protein food supplement.] 81. Oxalidaceae: Oxalis Family Back To Alphabet Table Averrhoa carambola Carambola [An elongate, angular fruit composed of 5 carpels with a star-shaped cross section; the tartness is due to calcium oxalate crystals in the flesh which dissolve in the saliva forming oxalic acid.] Averrhoa bilimbi Cucumber Tree [An interesting Malayan tree with edible cauliflorous fruits.] Oxalis albicans ssp. californica, O. corniculata ssp. corniculata, and O. cernua Oxalis or Sour Grass [Native and naturalized species on the Palomar College campus.] See Photo Of The Amazing Carambola Fruit See Photo Of The Cauliflorous Cucumber Tree Palmaceae: Palm Family See Arecaceae Palmae: Palm Family See Arecaceae 82. Pandanaceae: Pandanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Pandanus tectorius Pandanus [Polynesian plant resembling a palm with prop roots; leaves used for baskets, floor coverings, mats and thatching for houses; woody, seed-bearing sections (containing edible seeds) used for necklaces and leis.] See Photos Of Remarkable Pandanus Plant 83. Papaveraceae: Poppy Family Back To Alphabet Table Papaver somniferum Opium Poppy [Source of isoquinoline alkaloids codeine, morphine, & diacetylmorphine (heroin); also poppy seeds.] See Opium Poppy: Source Of Narcotics & Poppy Seeds 84. Passifloraceae: Passionflower Family Back To Alphabet Table Passiflora edulis, ligularis, & quadrangularis [Granadilla or passion fruit used in Hawaiian Punch; passion fruit vines planted on campus.] See The Fruit & Blossom Of Passionflower Pedaliaceae: Pedalium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sesamum indicum Sesame [Herb with oil-rich seeds; tasty seeds sprinkled on breads, cakes, cookies and candies.] See Flower & Seeds Of Sesame Plant Phallaceae: Stinkhorn Fungus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dictyophora indusiata Basket Stinkhorn or Bamboo Mushroom [A tropical stinkhorn fungus with a lacy, netlike veil that hangs down from the phalluslike head; dried stinkhorns are packaged and sold in Asian markets; they are cooked in water and eaten in vegetarian dishes.] See Photos Of The Stinkhorn Fungus See Photo Of The Basket Stinkhorn 85. Phytolaccaceae: Pokeweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Phytolacca americana Pokeweed or Poke Salet [Native American weed or potherb; the young leaves are cooked and eaten like spinach.] See Pokeweed And Closely Related Ombu Tree Pittosporaceae: Pittosporum Family Back To Alphabet Table Billardiera cymosa Sweet Appleberry [Native to Australia; fruits eaten by Aborigines.] Billardiera longiflora Purple Appleberry [Native to Australia; evergreen climbing shrub.] Billardiera scandens Appleberry [Native to Australia; edible fruit used in baked pastries.] 86. Pinaceae: Pine Family Back To Alphabet Table [An extremely important family for lumber and wood distillation products.] Abies balsamea Canada Balsam [Oleoresin from bark used as a mounting medium for microscope work.] Other species of Abies Fir [Used for boxes, crates, and Christmas trees.] Picea spp. Spruce. [Wood used for pulpwood, boxes, etc. Because it is resonant it is much used for sounding boards of pianos and the bodies of violins and similar instruments; Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is used for boats, oars, and other products; spruce gum comes from the sapwood of red spruce (P. rubens); very beautiful conifers.] Pinus spp. Pines. [Economically important lumber trees.] Pines are very important lumber trees, e.g. eastern white pine (P. strobus), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa); raw turpentines are oleoresins (liquid resins containing essential oils) exuded as pitch; "spirits" of turpentine from distilled pitch; rosin is left after the volatile "spirits of turpentine" are removed; most raw turpentine from longleaf pine (P. palustris), loblolly pine (P. taeda) and slash pine (P. elliottii); slash pine also used in pulpwood industry for making paper; European sources of turpentines include cluster pine (P. pinaster) and Scotch pine (P. sylvestris). Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir [Most important timber tree in U.S.; common type of wood (plywood and 2 X 4's) sold at lumber yards.] Tsuga spp. Hemlock (e.g. T. canadensis) [Also used for lumber, etc; bark is chief domestic source of tannin in U.S.] Larix spp. Larch [Wood used for building construction, fences, etc.] Other wood distillation products from pine family (mostly pines) is wood alcohol (methanol); however, hardwood angiosperms are the main source. Also pine nuts from the following species of Pinyon Pines: P. monophylla, P. edulis, and P. quadrifolia. Other native California pines: P. sabiniana (digger pine), P. coulteri (Coulter pine), P. torreyana (Torrey pine). Pignolia Nuts from Italian Stone Pine (P. pinea) also planted on Palomar College campus. See Article About Wood & Wood Products See Images Of Spruce & Uses By Native People See Images Of Larch (Larix), A Deciduous Conifer Photos Of Resins & Incenses From Plants 87. Piperaceae: Pepper Family Back To Alphabet Table Piper nigrum Black Pepper [The dried, black, seed-bearing berries are the source of "fresh ground pepper."] Piper methysticum Kava Kava [Drink made from roots used in Polynesian religious and social life; a popular herb sold throughout the world as a mild sedative and tranquilizer.] See Photo Of Fresh And Dried Black Peppers. See Photo Of The Amazing Kava Kava Plant. Plantaginaceae: Plantain Family Back To Alphabet Table Plantago spp. Plantain or Psyllium [The thickening and swelling of soluble fiber extracts such as Metamucil(R) and Hydrocil(R) involves imbibition. These plant products contain a mucilaginous gum derived from the husks of psyllium seeds (Plantago psyllium and P. ovata). Psyllium powder readily absorbs water and forms a smooth bulky mass that moves through the intestinal tract. Insoluble fiber comes from the indigestible cellulose cell walls of fruits and vegetables. Both types of fiber are beneficial in maintaining a healthy colon, particularly in older adults with diverticulosis.] See Close-up Photo Of Fresh Plantain Seeds 88. Poaceae: Grass Family (Gramineae) Back To Alphabet Table This Is A Very Important Family For People And Herbivorous Animals! 1. Food for people and livestock: Rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale cereale), oats (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), corn or maize (Zea mays), teosinte (Zea mexicana) the ancestor of corn (madre de maiz); sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and many other species; also bamboo shoots used in Chinese and Cantonese foods. Rye (Secale cereale) is a diploid plant (2n) composed of 2 sets of chromosomes (DD), each set with 7 chromosomes (D=7). [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Therefore, the diploid number, or number of chromosomes in the rye sporophyte (DD), is 14. Bread wheat is a hexaploid (6n) composed of 6 sets of chromosomes (AA, BB & CC), each set with 7 chromosomes (A=7, B=7, C=7). Therefore, the number of chromosomes in the wheat hexaploid sporophyte (AABBCC) is 42. Triticale (Triticosecale) is a bigeneric hybrid between wheat (Triticum aestivum n=21) and rye (Secale cereale n=7). The resulting hybrid (ABCD) contains one set of rye chromosomes (D) and 3 sets of wheat chromosomes (ABC), a total of 28 chromosomes (7 + 21). It is sterile because the rye (D) set has no homologous set to pair up with during synapsis. This sterile hybrid seedling is treated with colchicine to produce a plant with twice as many chromosomes (i.e. 2A's, 2B's, 2C's and 2 D's), a total of 56. The fertile hybrid is an octoploid (8n) because it contains 8 sets of chromosomes. The diploid rye plant (DD) can also be crossed with tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum AABB) to produce a sterile triploid hybrid with 3 sets of chromosomes (ABD). This hybrid is treated with colchicine to produce a fertile hexaploid (6n) version of triticale (AABBDD). Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ) is derived from wild emmer wheat of Syria. Emmer wheat is a tetraploid hybrid (4n=28) between einkorn wheat (T. monococcum or a relative) and a grass similar to the present-day goat grass (T. speltoides = Aegilops speltoides); or possibly T. longissima or T searsii. The original diploid (2n=14) emmer wheat was probably sterile because it contained only 2 sets of chromosomes, one from the einkorn parent (n=7) and one from the goat grass parent (n=7). Through a natural doubling of the chromosomes, a fertile tetraploid emmer wheat with 4 sets of chromosomes was produced. A mutation in the tetraploid emmer wheat, causing the bracts (glumes) enclosing the grain to break away readily, gave rise to the tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum or T. turgidum var. durum). The readily detachable grain makes the separation of the grain from the chaff relatively easy and is why durum wheat is called a "free-thrashing" type of wheat. Tetraploid wheat also contains two proteins that combine to form a tenacious complex called gluten. Because of gluten, the wheat flour becomes elastic when mixed with water and kneaded, and when yeast is added, it rises into firm loaves. Yeast cells in the dough undergo fermentation and release carbon dioxide which becomes trapped in the glutinous protein mass. Baking "sets" the dough by drying the starch and denaturing the gluten protein. As the dough bakes, the carbon dioxide gas expands into larger bubbles, thus producing the porous, spongy texture of bread. Corn does not make good loaves of bread because it lacks gliadin, one of the key proteins of gluten. Consequently, corn bread crumbles and falls apart easily. See Photo Comparison Of Corn Bread & Wheat Bread Bread wheat (T. aestivum) is also a free-thrashing type of wheat. It is a hexaploid (6n) hybrid, four sets from an emmer wheat parent and two additional sets from a wild, weedy species (T. tauschii = Aegilops squarrosa). The endosperm of this hybrid wheat is especially high in protein and surpasses other wheats for bread making. 2. Main source of sugar (sucrose): Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum). 3. Alcoholic Beverages: a. Beer. Malt sugar (maltose) from germinating barley; starch inside grains converted into maltose. b. Sake. Made from fermented rice. c. Other distilled beverages. Whiskey made from maize, rye, etc.; bourbon made primarily from maize; scotch made from barley malt; vodka made from wheat; rum is made from sugar cane; gin is made from barley malt and rye, and flavored with oil of juniper; brandy is distilled from wine or other fruit juices (it may be 65 to 70 percent alcohol or 130 to 140 proof; some German whiskies are made from potatoes. 4. Various types of timber bamboo used for construction and scaffolding: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, etc. 5. Oil of Citronella: From leaves of Cymbopogon nardus. 6. Job's Tears (Coix lacryma-job) [A fascinating grass used for bead jewelry.] Job's Tears, Teosinte, And Indian Corn See Broomcorn: A Variety Of Sorghum See Sorghum Or Milo (Sorghum bicolor) See Photos Of Important Cereal Grasses Bamboo: Economically Valuable Giant Grasses See Sugar Cane On The Island Of Kauai 89. Polygalaceae: Milkwort Family Back To Alphabet Table Polygala senega Senega Snakeroot [Drug senega from dried roots.] 90. Polygonaceae: Buckwheat Family Back To Alphabet Table Fagopyrum sagittatum Buckwheat [Flour from achenes.] Eriogoum Wild Buckwheat [A large genus of shrubs, annuals and perennials in California; one of the largest genera in California with over 112 different species; rivaled in size (in California) only by the genus Carex.] Coccoloba uvifera Sea Grape [A spawling shrub or small tree along the shores of Caribbean islands; grapelike clusters of fruits noted by Columbus on his first voyage to the New World.] Rheum rhaponticum Rhubarb [Eat petioles (leaf stalks) only because leaf blades contain high levels of toxic oxalates.] Rumex hymenosepalus Wild Rhubarb [Wild in several coastal riverbeds, such as the San Dieguito Riverbed); also a tanning material from roots called canaigre containing about 30% tannin.] A Sea Grape On The Caribbean Shore Costa Rica See The Edible Petioles (Leaf Stalks) Of Rhubarb See Nutritious Achenes Of The Buckwheat Family 91. Portulacaceae: Purslane Family Back To Alphabet Table Portulaca oleracea Purslane [Common prostrate weed with edible, succulent leaves and stems; a C-4 plant, grows rapidly during hot summr months in southern California.] Montia perfoliata (Claytonia perfoliata) Miner's Lettuce [Common native plant in California; leaves and stems used in salads; other weedy species in this family used as pot herbs.] Purslane: A Delicious Pot Herb And Classic C-4 Plant 92. Proteaceae: Protea Family Back To Alphabet Table Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla Queensland or Macadamia nut [In Palomar College Arboretum.] Banksia and Hakea [Drought resistent shrubs planted on Palomar College campus.] See Helicopter Seeds of Banksia and Hakea See Macadamia Nuts In Their Husks Pseudomonadaceae: Pseudomonas Family Back To Alphabet Table Xanthomonas campestris Xanthan Bacteria [Xanthan gum is produced by fermenting corn sugar with this bacteria; the bacteria produce xanthan as part of their cell walls; xanthan gum is used in many food products, including salad dressings and low cholesterol egg substitutes made from egg whites and vegetable gums.] Pteridacaceae: Bracken Fern Family Back To Alphabet Table Pteris ensiformis Hoko-shida or Sword Brake [In Asian countries the young, uncurling fronds (called fiddleheads) are cooked and eaten with rice or other vegetables.] Pteridium aquilinum Braken Fern [Another species with edible fiddleheads; in San Diego County the gathering of fiddleheads is strictly prohibited because local populations of bracken fern could be decimated.] Bracken Fern Fiddlehead In San Diego County 93. Punicaceae: Pomegranate Family Back To Alphabet Table Punica granatum Pomegranate See A Ripe Pomegranate Fruit No Families With Q Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 94. Resedaceae: Mignonette Family Back To Alphabet Table Reseda luteola Dyer's Weld According to the textbook for this course Plants In Our World by B. B. Simpson and M. C. Ogarzaly (1995), woad was one of the dyes used to make the green outfits worn by Robin Hood's men deep in Sherwood forest. Their clothing was dipped in a blue dye bath of woad, and then in a bath of yellow weld from the leaves of Reseda luteola, a member of the mignonette family (Resedaceae). The mixture of blue and yellow produced the characteristic green color associated with England's legendary bandit who robbed from the rich and gave to the poor. 95. Rhamnaceae: Buckthorn Family Back To Alphabet Table Rhamnus purshiana Cascara Sagrada [Laxative cascara from bark.] Ziziphus jujuba Jujube [Small fleshy drupe; also one of the trees inhabited by the lac insect, a source of shellac.] See Jujube Fruits & California Desert Jujube Photo Of Seed Lac: Excretion Of Lac Insect 96. Roccellaceae: Rocella Family Back To Alphabet Table Roccella tinctoria Roccella [The thallus of this lichen contains phenolic acids which serve as a purple-red dye; orcein, a purple-red chromosomal stain found in every microbiology laboratory, is derived from this lichen species.] Lichen acids were the source of important dyes for cotton and wool in medieval Europe. Two purple and red dyes, orchil and cudbear, were obtained from the lichens Roccella and Ochrolechia. Lichen dyes were dissolved in human urine, and the yarns were immersed in this mixture. Ammonia salts in the urine functioned as mordants to make the dyes permanent. Pine lichen or wolf moss (Letharia vulpina), a beautiful chartreuse fruticose lichen that grows on the bark of pines and fir throughout the mountains of the Pacific United States, contains a mildly toxic yellow dye called vulpinic acid. The striking canary-yellow porcupine quills woven into the baskets of Klamoth and Yurok Indians were dyed with this lichen. A brownish dye from the foliose lichen Parmelia omphalodes is used to this day on hand-woven Harris tweeds from the Outer Hebrides. Some lichens contain various phenolic acids and essential oils that produce fragrant odors in scented soaps and help fix the aroma of fine perfumes. For centuries a lovely fruticose lichen called oak moss (Evernia prunastri) has been collected in Europe for making perfume.Through a complex process of solvent extraction and distillation, oak moss has become an important ingredient in the manufacture of perfumes and high-quality cosmetics. This remarkable lichen occurs in California, but air pollution has eliminated it throughout most of its former range in southern California. Oak moss still clings to the branches of ponderosa pines on Palomar Mountain in San Diego County. See Article About Lichens And Desert Varnish See Photos of Lichens Used For Dyes & Perfumes 97. Rosaceae: Rose Family Back To Alphabet Table Cydonia oblonga Quince Eriobotrya japonica Loquat Fragaria spp. (F. x ananassa, F. virginiana, F. chiloensis) Strawberry Prunus americana Wild Plum [Also other plum species used for prunes.] P. amygdalus Almond P. armeniaca Apricot P. avium & cerasus Cherry. P. domestica Garden Plum P. persica Peach P. persica var. nectarina Nectarine Pyrus communis Pear Malus sylvestris (Pyrus malus) [Common Apple and also wild crab apples.] Mesipulus germanica Medlar [A small, deciduous tree native to Europe and Asia Minor; the ripe, apple-shaped pomes are eaten raw and used in preserves.] Quillaja saponaria Soapbark Rosa spp. (R. odorata, R. damascena, R. gallica, R. rugosa) Rose [Numerous cultivated species and hybrid varieties; the fruits are called rose hips, an excellent natural source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) used in vitamin supplements.] Rubus spp. (R. idaeus, R. occidentalis, R. ursinus) Raspberry, Blackberry, Loganberry, & Dewberry. Apple, Pear, Quince, Loquat, Peach & Cherry Fruits See A Fresh Pluot: A Cross Between The Plum & Apricot See A Fresh Greenish Almond Right From The Tree See A Fresh Apricot With The Pit (Endocarp) Inside See The Aggregate fruit Of A Rose Called A Rose Hip See Aggregate Fruits Of The Blackberry And Strawberry 98. Rubiaceae: Madder Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinchona spp. (C. ledgeriana, C. pubescens, and C. officinalis) Quinine [From bark of several species native to the Andes of South America; important alkaloid in treatment of Malaria.] Genipa americana Genip [Little-known fruit of the West Indies.] Morinda citrifolia Painkiller Tree or "Noni." Coffea arabica Arabian Coffee [From seeds.] Rubia tinctorum Madder [Brilliant scarlet dye from roots; during Revolutionary War, the red coats of British soldiers were colored with this brilliant crimson dye.] Gardenia jasminoides Gardenia [Perfume from fragrant blossoms.] Nertera granadensis Pin Cushion Plant [Decorative little plant sold in southern California during fall months.] See The Red Dye Plant Called Madder See Coffee Plants On The Island Of Kauai See The Painkiller Tree Called "Noni." Pin Cushion Plant With Orange Fruits 99. Rutaceae: Rue Family Back To Alphabet Table Casimiroa edulis White Sapote [Banana-peach flavor.] Murraya koenigii Curry Leaf Tree [Leaves used in curries and curry powder.] Citrus aurantiifolia Lime C. limettioides Sweet Lime C. limetta Sweet Lemon C. aurantium Sour Orange (Bitter Orange) [One of the best oranges for making marmalade.] C. bergamia Bergamot [Perfume from fruit rinds; essential oil from peel also used as a flavoring in hard candy, baked goods, desserts and Earl Gray tea. Note: Bergamot tea comes from leaves of Monarda didyma and M. citriodora (Lamiaceae), also called Oswego tea or bee balm.] C. limon Lemon C. maxima Shaddock (Pomelo) C. medica Citron C. reticulata (C. nobilis) Mandarin Orange or Tangerine C. sinensis Sweet Orange C. x paradisi Grapefruit: Shaddock (C. maxima) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x nobilis Tangor: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x tangelo Tangelo: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Grapefruit (C. paradisi) Note: There are many other cultivated varieties of Citrus species. Fortunella japonica Round Kumquat F. margarita Oval Kumquat x Citrofortunella microcarpa Calamondin: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Kumquat (F. margarita) See Assorted Fruits (Hesperidiums) Of The Citrus Family See Tangelo Hybrid And Its Orange & Grapefruit Parents See Large & Amazing Pomelo--Mother Of The Grapefruit See The Delicious Lime And The Kumquat (Fortunella) See The Delicious Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides) See The Calamondin (x Citrofortunella microcarpa) See The Sweet White Sapote: Not A Hesperidium See The Curry Leaf Tree (Murraya koenigii) 100. Saccharomycetaceae: Yeast Family Back To Alphabet Table Kluyveromyces marxianus Nutritional Food Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. uuvarum Beer, Wine and Bread Yeasts Torulaspora delbrueckii Sherry Yeast Because of their ability to ferment sugars, yeast fungi play a major role in the beer, wine and baking industries. In the brewery, ethyl alcohol (ethanol) from the fermentation process is the primary industrial product; in the bakery, carbon dioxide released from the fermentation process causes the dough to rise. There are numerous optimal strains of these fungi adapted for specific types of fermented products. Go to the grass family (Poaceae) to see the numerous alcoholic beverages made from yeast fermentation. Note: The yeast responsible for kefir grains and sourdough bread is Torulopsis holmii in the family Cryptococcaceae. See The Hop Vine Used To Make Beer 101. Salicaceae: Willow Family Back To Alphabet Table Populus balsamifera Balsam Poplar; P. deltoides Cottonwood; P. tremuloides Quaking or White Aspen [Uses include a soft wood for boxes, etc. and as pulpwood in manufacture of paper.] 102. Santalaceae: Sandalwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Santalum album Sandalwood [The valuable scented heartwood of this Old World species is the source of sandalwood oil; other species of sandalwood are also highly prized for their wood; deforestation of native Hawaiian forests was originally due to the exportation of sandalwood.] Note: Red sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus) belongs to the legume family (Fabaceae). The powdered wood of red sandalwood is used for a bright red dye. Read About Hawaiian Sandalwood 103. Sapindaceae: Soapberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Sapindus saponaria Soapberry [Planted on Palomar College campus.] Schleichera oleosa Lac Tree [Host for lac insect.] Euphoria longana (Dimocarpus longan) Longan Litchi chinensis (Nephelium litchi) Lychee Nephelium lappaceum Rambutan Blighia sapida Akee Paullinia cupana Guarana [The "cola" of Brazil made from the dried, roasted seeds; guarana contains more than 5% caffeine, compared with about 1% for yerba mate tea.] Noteworthy Plants Article About Soaplily & Soapberry See Photos Of The Delicious Logan, Lychee and Rambutan See The High Caffeine "Cola Of Brazil" Called Guarana See Akee Fruit That Is Poisonous If Eaten At Wrong Stage 104. Sapotaceae: Sapodilla Family Back To Alphabet Table Acras zapota (Manilkara zapota) Sapodilla or Naseberry Tree [Chicle, the latex sap of the sapodilla tree, commonly used in chewing gums, is actually an elastic terpene polymer (polyterpene) similar to natural rubber.] Chrysophyllum cainito Star Apple [Interesting fruit of the Caribbean marketplace.] Palaquium gutta Gutta-Percha [The milky latex sap yields a polyterpene rubber with a number of remarkable uses, from the cores of golf balls to root canals of your teeth.] Pouteria sapota (Calocarpum sapota & C. mammosum) Mamey Sapote [Tropical American tree; large dark browm seeds used in Indian necklaces.] Pouteria campechiana Eggfruit or Canistel [Tropical American tree with delicious, fleshy fruit containing large, brown, shiny seeds.] See Article About Rubber And Chicle See The Amazing Uses Of Gutta-Percha Read About Mamey Sapote And Eggfruit See The Large Fruit Of A Mamey Sapote See An Eggfruit With Shiny Brown Seeds Star Apple From Hawaiian Island Of Maui Saururaceae: Lizard-Tail Family Back To Alphabet Table Anemopsis californica Yerba Mansa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; root made into a tea to relieve indigestion, asthma and to purify the blood; tea also used as liniment for rashes, cuts, bruises and sores; boiled leaves used as poultice for muscular aches and pains.] See Yerba Mansa In San Diego County 105. Saxifragaceae: Saxifrage Family Back To Alphabet Table Ribes spp. Currant and Gooseberry. [Also alternate host of white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola); since the white pine is more important economically as well as ecologically, the currants & gooseberries are eradicated in certain forested regions; gooseberries can be differentiated from currants because they are generally very spiny. See California Gooseberries And Currants 106. Scrophulariaceae: Figwort or Snapdragon Family Back To Alphabet Table Digitalis purpurea Foxglove [Heart stimulant (cardiac glycoside) digoxin and digitoxin from leaves.] Plants Producing Medical Glycosides 107. Simmondsiaceae: Jojoba Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: Jojoba was formerly placed in the Buxaceae. Simmondsia chinensis Jojoba [Native shrubs; seeds are edible; oil from seeds used as substitute for whale oil; oil used for wax, polish, and candles.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Jojoba Oil 108. Solanaceae: Nightshade Family Back To Alphabet Table Atropa belladonna Belladonna [Alkaloid atropine from lvs.] Capsicum annuum Red, Wax, Bell and Jalapeno Chile Peppers. [Many different varieties of peppers; paprika from dried fruit of one variety.] C. baccatum South American Peppers Known as "Ajis." C. chinense Habanero Peppers [Very hot!] C. frutescens Tabasco Peppers C. pubescens South American "Rocotos" and Mexican "Manzanos." Datura stramonium Jimsonweed [Source of drug stramonium from leaves and flowering tops; contains the alkaloids hyoscyamine, scopolamine and atropine; Indians used liquid from crushed roots of D. stramonium, D. wrightii and D. meteloides for hallucinogenic effect during puberty ritual; drug is very poisonous and is dangerous.] Duboisia hopwoodii Pituri [Alkaloid scopolamine from leaves.] Hyoscyamus niger Black Henbane [Alkaloid hyoscyamine from leaves.] Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato Physalis ixocarpa Tomatillo P. peruviana Cape Gooseberry or Poha Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco Solanum melongena Eggplant [Numerous cultivars and the almagro eggplant landrace.] S. tuberosum Potato [Edible tubers; average baked tuber about 100 kilocalories, unless topped with mounds of butter and sour cream.] S. quitoense Naranjilla [A large perennial herb of the Andes with orange, tomatolike fruits.] Note: Black Pepper is from dried unripe fruit (berry) of Piper nigrum, a member of the family Piperaceae. See Article About Plant Alkaloids See Article About Chile Peppers See Tomato, Tomatillo & Eggplant Almagro Eggplant From Central Spain Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) Fascinating Story Of The Irish Potato 109. Sterculiaceae: Sterculia Family Back To Alphabet Table Cola nitida & Cola acuminata Cola-Nut [Seeds used in soft drinks & contain alkaloid caffeine.] Theobroma cacao Cacao [Seeds contain alkaloid theobromine and are source of chocolate; sweet chocolate has sugar and milk added.] Sterculia urens Gum Karaya or Sterculia Gum [Native to rocky hills and plateaus of India, the sap of this tree is the source of a valuable water-soluble gum that forms a strong adhesive gel when mixed with a small amount of water; because of its resistance to bacterial and enzymatic breakdown, it has been used for dental adhesives and as a binder in bologna and other lunch meats; it is also used in salad dressings, cheese spreads, whipped toppings and hair setting gels. S. lychnophora Poontalai or Pang da Hai [Seeds imbibe water and expand into a gelatinous mass that is used to make a beverage in southeast Asia.] S. foetida Java Olive [Although the flowers have a putrid odor, the seeds are eaten raw, roasted or fried.] See The Gelatinous Seed Of Sterculia lychnophora See The Seed Called Java Olive or Indian Almond See The Remarkable Cauliflorous Cacao Fruit See The Distinctive Leaves Of The Cola-Nut Tree 110. Taxaceae: Yew Family Back To Alphabet Table Taxus brevifolia Pacific Yew [Bark and needles are the source of taxol, a valuable drug for the tratment of ovarian and breat cancers.] See Pacific Yew Foliage And Seeds 111. Taxodiaceae: Taxodium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sequoia sempervirens Coast Redwood [Important lumber tree because of decay resistant wood; tallest tree species on earth, rivaled in height by the giant Eucalyptus regnans of Australia.] Sequoiadendron gigantum Giant Sequoia [Most massive living thing on earth, 36 ft. in diameter and over 1200 tons; mostly protected in several California National Parks such as Yosemite, Sequoia and King's Canyon.] Taxodium distichum Bald Cypress [Deciduous conifer of swamps with peculiar knees or pneumatophores; wood resistant to decay.] See WAYNE'S WORD Botanical Record-Breakers See Article About The Taxodium Family (Taxodiaceae) Ternstroemiaceae: Tea Family See Theaceae 112. Theaceae: Tea Family (Ternstroemiaceae) Back To Alphabet Table Camellia sinensis Tea [Leaves are source of the many varieties of green & black teas.] The grade of tea depends on the age of the leaves. In "golden tips" the youngest bud only is used; in "orange pekoe" the smallest leaf; in "pekoe" the second leaf; in "pekoe souchong" the third leaf; in "souchong" the fourth leaf; and in "congou" the fifth and largest leaf to be gathered. In green tea the leaves are dried and appear dull green; in black tea the leaves are fermented and then dried; "oolong tea" is only partially fermented and is intermediate between black and green. The various pekoes, souchongs, and congous are black teas, while gunpowder and hyson are the most important grades of green tea. See tea plant leaves & flower, and the closely related Camellia. 113. Tiliaceae: Basswood Family Back To Alphabet Table Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius Jute [Valuable stem fibers woven into burlap, sackcloth and tough twines.] Tilia americana American Basswood or Linden [In Palomar College Arboretum.] T. cordata European Linden Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle 114. Trapaceae: Water-Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Trapa bicornis Water Caltrop or "Ling Chio" [Asian water plant with strange woody fruit resembling the head of a bull; starchy seed inside fruits in cooked and eaten.] T. natans Water Caltrop [Another species of water caltrop with 4-pronged woody fruit.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Water Caltrop 115. Tuberaceae (and Terfeziaceae): Truffle Families Back To Alphabet Table Tuber melanosporum Black Truffle T. magnatum White Truffle T. gibbosum Oregon White Truffle Of all the edible fungi, truffles (Tuber spp.) are perhaps the most fascinating. They are truly the ne plus ultra of mushroom cuisine. Truffles are the fruiting bodies (ascocarps) of mycorrhizal ascomycetous fungi. Unlike other common forest mushrooms, truffles are subterranean and resemble small pebbles or clods of dirt beneath the soil. Truffles emit the odor of certain mammalian steroids and are irresistible to some mammals, including female pigs. This particular steroid is found in the saliva and breathe of male pigs (boars) and explains the natural lust and talent sows have for truffle hunting. Pigs and dogs can detect truffles from as far away as 50 yards, and there is even a case of a dog jumping over a hedge and running across a field to find a choice truffle under a beech tree 100 yards away. Since the fabled truffles of France and Italy retail for more than $500 a pound, a good swine or canine truffle sniffer is a valuable asset. Read About Truffles In Fungus Article See Some Dried Oregon White Truffles Umbelliferae: Carrot Family See Apiaceae 116. Urticaceae: Nettle Family Back To Alphabet Table Boehmeria nivea Ramie [Strong fibers from stems (stronger than cotton and flax); made into lustrous China grass cloth.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 117. Verbenaceae: Verbena Family Back To Alphabet Table Tectona grandis Teak [Wood is hard and does not warp, split, or crack, and is very resistant to termites and decay; elephants are often used in lumbering operations.] 118. Vitaceae: Grape Family Back To Alphabet Table Vitis labrusca North American Grape [Many varieties, including the Concord grape.] Vitis vinifera European Wine Grape [Many varieties of wine grapes and edible table grapes.] There are many varieties of grapes. In the European tightskins, which are used for wines, the skin does not separate readily from the pulp. Grapes are one of the oldest cultivated plants. They have been grown in Egypt for 6,000 years. They were highly developed by Greeks and Romans. Fermentation is brought about through the action of wild yeasts which are present on the skins of the fruit (whitish powder). The maximum alcoholic content of natural wines is about 12 to 16% (24 to 32 proof). Higher alcoholic content will kill the yeast cells. Brandy is made from distilled wines and has a much higher alcoholic content (up to 140 proof!). Red wines are made from grapes with colored skins (with anthocyanin), while white wines are made from white grapes (or red grapes with skins removed). In dry wines the sugar is almost completely fermented. In sweet wines fermentation is stopped before all the sugar is converted. The North American grapes are larger and more hardy than the European. The fruit is round with a more watery flesh and a thin skin that slips off very easily. They are used for eating and for making grape juice (concord grapes), jams, and jellies. Of course, grapes are also the source of raisins. See 'Thompson Seedless' & 'Red Seedless' Grapes No Families With W Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With X Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With Y Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 119. Zingiberaceae: Ginger Family Back To Alphabet Table Zingiber officinale Ginger [Rhizome is the source of an important spice (oleoresin) used in ginger ale, ginger beer, and gingerbread.] Curcuma domestica Turmeric [Curcuma longa also listed for turmeric; dried, ground rhizome used in curry powder and as a yellow dye.] Elettaria cardamomum Cardamom [A highly aromatic spice derived from the seeds and dried fruits; used in curry powder, seasoning for sausages, incenses, perfumes and medicines.] See A Turmeric Hybrid In Full Bloom See A Ginger Rhizome: A Valuable Spice 120. Zygophyllaceae: Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Guaicum officinale Ligum Vitae [One of the world's hardest ironwoods (specific gravity of 1.37); used for bushing blocks on propeller shafts of steamships; also source of gum guaiac, resin providing the natural, self-lubrication qualities of the wood; resin used medically to test for presence of hidden blood; peroxidase enzymes in blood cells oxidize chemicals in resin, resulting in a blue-green color change.] Tribulus terrestris Puncture Vine [Old World sprawling weed that is responsible for many punctured bicycle tires in the American southwest.] Larrea tridentata Creosote Bush [Dominant shrub of Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico.] One of the most common questions asked by my students on desert field trips is whether creosote comes from the creosote bush. The answer is an unequivocal no. The commercial source of creosote is derived from the distillation of coal tar. It is produced by high temperature carbonization of bituminous coal. Wood creosote is obtained from the distillation of wood tar from several woods of the eastern United States. Wood creosote is a mixture of phenolic compounds that are used medicinally as an antiseptic and expectorant. Under no circumstances should coal tar creosote be taken internally. Although creosote bush does not grow in the chaparral plant community of California, the dried leaves of this shrub are the source of "chaparral tea," a controversial herbal remedy with antitumor properties. The leaves contain a powerful antioxidant that apparently destroys tumor cells; however, there are reported cases of liver toxicity, including toxic hepatitis and jaundice. See The Resinous Leaves Of Creosote Bush Gum Guaiac & Other Uses For Lignum Vitae ______________________________________________________________ Economic Botany References 1. Armstrong, W.P. 1998. "The Wild and Wonderful Family of Gourds." Pacific Horticulture 59 (4): 11-18. 2. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Logwood: The Tree That Spawned A Nation." Pacific Horticulture 53 (1): 38-43 3. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Natural Dyes." Ornament 15 (4): 70-73 + 92-95. 4. Armstrong, W.P. 1982. "Not Beavers, Stars or Sons of Jupiter." Environment Southwest No. 496: 4-7. 5. Bailey, L.H. and E.Z. Bailey. 1976. Hortus Third. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. 6. Balick, M.J. and P.A. Cox. 1996. Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. Scientific American Library, New York. 7. Bianchini, F. and F. Corbetta. 1976. The Complete Book of Fruits and Vegetables. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. 8. Bold, H.C. and M.J. Wynne. 1985. Introduction To The Algae (2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 9. Boswell, V.R. 1949. "Our Vegetable Travelers." The National Geographic Magazine Vol. XCVI (2): 145-217. 10. Brock, T.D. and M.T. Madigan. 1988. Biology of Microorganisms (Fifth Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 11. Chrispeels, M.J. and D. Sadava. 1977. Plants, Food, and People. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 12. Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, California. 13. Fong, C.H. and Y. Hoi-Sen. 1980. Malaysian Fruits in Color. Tropical Press SDH. BHD. 56-1&2 Jalan Maarof, 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysaia. 14. Heiser, C.B., Jr. 1973. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Man's Food. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 15. Hill, A.F. Economic Botany. 1952. McGraw-Hill, New York. 16. Klein, R.M. 1979. The Green World: An Introduction to Plants and People. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York. 17. Langenheim, J.H. and K.V. Thimann. 1982. Plant Biology and its Relation to Human Affairs. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 18. Lewington, A. 1990. Plants For People. Oxford University Press, New York. 19. Lewis, W.H. and M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Man's Health. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 20. Levetin, E. and K. McMahon. 1996. Plants and Society. Wm. C. Brown, Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. 21. Read, B.E. and W. Wagner. 1940. Shanghai Vegetables. The China Journal Publishing Co., Ltd. 22. Richardson, W.N. and T. Stubbs. 1978. Plants, Agriculture and Human Society. W.A. Benjamin, Inc., Reading Massachusetts. 23. Robinson, T. 1964. The Organic Constituents of Higher Plants: Their Chemistry and Interrelationships. Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 24. Schery, R.W. 1972. Plants For Man. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 25. Simpson, B.B. and M.C. Ogorzaly. 1995. Economic Botany: Plants in Our World. Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. 26. Und, I. and P. Schoenfelder. 2004. Das Neue Handbuch der Heilpflanzen. Kosmos Verlag, Germany. 27. Van Aken, N. and J. Harrisson. 1995. The Great Exotic Fruit Book. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California. 28. Weiss, E.A. 1971. Castor, Sesame and Safflower. Barnes & Noble, New York. 29. Windholz, M., S. Budavari, R.F.Blumetti, and E. S. Otterbein (Editors). 1983. The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey. + Link To Purdue University Alphabetical Crop Index [top3.gif] [hipoicon.gif] List Of Economically Important Families __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To WAYNE'S WORD Home Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To NOTEWORTHY PLANTS Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To Biology GEE WHIZ TRIVIA Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To The LEMNACEAE ON-LINE Page All text material & images on these pages copyright (c) W.P. Armstrong #Healthy Girl's Kitchen - Atom Healthy Girl's Kitchen - RSS skip to main | skip to sidebar Healthy Girl's Kitchen [about1.png] [healthyrecipes1.png] [shophealthy1.png] [awesomeproducts1.png] [greatstrategies1.png] [endemotional1.png] Pages quote Your real work on this planet is not your weight or your fat. The fabric of your emotional journey is not about deprivation and overeating. It is about love and fear and manifesting the magnificent person you already are. It is time to pay attention to your real life. Stop distracting yourself from your emotional life. Find out what you are feeling and feel it. It is then that you can find the way to who you really are. I promise you, it is not just fat. -Brooke Castillo, If I am So Smart, Why Can't I Lose Weight? subscribe [subscribe_tag.png] [rss-pencil48.png] [twitter-pencil48.png] [facebook-pencil48.png] Enter your email address: ____________________ Subscribe Delivered by FeedBurner TIP: YOU MUST CONFIRM E-MAIL SUBSCRIPTION. CHECK YOUR E-MAIL AFTER SUBSCRIBING. CHECK YOUR SPAM--THE E-MAIL MAY BE THERE! contact me healthygirlskitchen@gmail.com Before! [before.png] Before! This is me before becoming Plant Strong! Total cholesterol: 231 After! [after.png] After! This is me after happily going Plant Strong for over two years. Total cholesterol: 147 Total weight loss: 40 pounds zazzle Volumetric Eating Remember caloric density when you are trying to lose weight. Vegetables have 100 calories per pound, fruit 300 calories per pound, whole grains 500 calories per pound, beans 600 calories per pound, animal meat, 1000 calories per pound, refined carbs (white flour stuff) 1400 calories per pound, junk food, 2300 calories per pound, nuts/seeds, 2800 calories per pound, oil 4000 calories per pound. Staying on the lower end of the caloric density scale is key to weight loss. ~Natala Constantine [disclaimer.png] Disclaimer Please keep in mind that I am not a nutritionist or doctor. I recommend checking with your doctor before making any changes to your diet. Most of the information on this blog is based upon my own personal experience and research. All photographs and content are copyright Healthy Girl's Kitchen. Please contact me for permission to use photographs and content. Foodgawker Gallery my foodgawker gallery Bliss Amazon stuff i love [stuff_tag.png] * Luscious Verde Cards * More from Luscious Verde * Peer Trainer * Cool Car Magnets * Eat to Live * The Engine 2 Diet * Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease * The Beck Diet Solution * The Best Kitchen Tool You'll Ever Find--The VitaMix Blender * You Are What You Eat on BBC America * Volumetrics * Cleveland Yoga * Trader Joe's * Penzey's Spices * Whole Foods Top 50 Blog 2 Learn why we're not just a Health Coach Training Program Food on the Table Grocery List Privacy Policy * HGK Privacy Policy Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School The envelope please. And the Academy Award for Most Useful Film goes to . . . Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School! [fast+food+shopping+school.jpg] Yes, it's THAT good. But what exactly is Fast Food Shopping School? Well, it's the third video in Jeff Novick's series called, you guessed it, Fast Food. [Fast+Food+Jeff+Novick+Videos+015+edited.jpg] That's the same series which freed me from the shackles in my brain that had me thinking that good, healthy, tasty food just "took a long time to make." Sometimes it does, but it doesn't always have to. You can read about that here, here and here. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/video-review-and-giveaway-jeff-novicks.html&layou t=standard&show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorschem e=light Pin It Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps [Moroccan+Burger+Wrap+021+edited+with+text.jpg] I'm gearing up this week to post a review of Jeff's Novick's latest video, "Fast Food Shopping School." I'm so excited to tell you about it, complete with a giveaway and promotions for those who don't win. Jeff, a nutritionist who also went to cooking school, is quickly becoming my biggest plant-based diet hero. I have learned so much from him and we've never met! He has really changed not only the amount of time I spend in the kitchen, but also my level of confidence. A few days ago on Facebook I saw Jeff posting a recipe for a new "Fast Food" burger of his with a Moroccan flair. I totally dig any veg'n Middle Eastern type food (I really have never met an ethnic food that I did not at least like), so I excitedly scribbled down the instructions. I prepared them a few days later and we have been enjoying them ever since (they keep well in the refrigerator). Not my favorite Fast Food burger of his, but certainly good. Then inspiration struck. I had some Roasted Red Pepper Hummus and grape tomatoes hanging around that I wanted to use up. Added to fresh sprouted grain tortillas and salad greens, and, well, the rest is history! The acidy pop from the warm tomatoes, the little bit of sweetness from the currants and the sweet potatoes, the creaminess from the hummus; it all just works wonders together. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/moroccan-veggie-burger-wraps.html&layout=standard &show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Designated Flatulence Area Is anyone watching the TV series "Portlandia?" A while back I wrote a blog posting called "Fart or Be Fat" I was somewhat new on a plant based diet and passing a lot of gas on most days. Fast forward two years and I have to think that I'm no gassier than I was pre-plant based eating, in fact, I might even be less gassy. Regardless of my personal gassy past, I know that for most people starting out on a plant based diet, excessive gas can cause great alarm. Enough to want to make some people throw in the towel. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/designated-flatulence-area.html&layout=standard&s how_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Older Posts Home Pinterest Follow Me on Pinterest Eat to Live [eatToLive.jpg] [show?id=A2JoAoaaUqw&bids=254134.7254325&type=2&subid=0] Dr. Fuhrman Dr. Fuhrman search this blog [search.png] Loading... [facebook.png] Become a Fan on FB bliss ad Blog Archive [archives_tag.png] * v 2013 (6) + v January (6) o Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food... o Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps o Designated Flatulence Area o Utopea Giveway Winner Announced and New Recipe (Fi... o One Grain More? One Laugh More! And How to Replace... o New Year, New Resolutions? 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Site + UW Fast Plants + UW Nematode Diagnostic Lab + UW Vegetable Pathology + Wisconsin Seed Potato Cert. Prog. * Seminars + Overview + Fridays @ 4 + Spring 2013 Seminars * Newsletters + The Pathogen * Contact Us Within This Section... * Overview * Visions, Values, and Goals * History * Facilities * Faculty and Staff * Plant Pathology Library * Research * News * Donations Search Search Plant Pathology Website: _______________ Search Vision, Values, and Goals Our Vision To be a World leader in research, teaching, and extension involving plant health, while serving the changing needs of society, the environment, and the University. Our Shared Values Our collective success depends upon creating and maintaining a supportive and collegial environment. Our effectiveness as a Department depends on accepting and utilizing diversity in work style, expertise, skills, personality, and outlook. Our ability to solve multifaceted problems requires contributions from, and mutual respect among, our research, teaching, and extension teams. Our ability to establish and to preserve excellence at the forefront of our changing field depends on innovation, creativity, risk-taking, and growth. Our Shared Goals Our research goal is to understand microbes, plants, and their interactions in the environment in order to provide effective approaches by which plant diseases can be controlled and beneficial interactions can be maximized. Our instructional goals are to offer superior education in plant pathology and plant-microbe interactions and to broaden the perspectives of plant biology in undergraduate, graduate, and public education. Our extension and outreach goals are to integrate and extend knowledge and provide services that foster an understanding of plant diseases and that enhance plant health, food safety, a profitable and sustainable agriculture, and stewardship of the environment. UW logo Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1598 608.262.1410 (tel) or 608.263.2626 (fax) Copyright (c) 2012 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System Feedback, questions, or accessibility issues: Russell Labs Computing Login Help The University of Texas at Austin Plant Biology Graduate Program Prospective Students Current Students Faculty Events Facilities Directory Contact Us Ecology Cell & Molecular Biology Phycology Physiology Systematics & Evolution __________________________________________________________________ School of Biological Sciences ____________________ Search Spotlight Taylor Quedensley Taylor Quedensley Ling Zhu Ling Zhu Welcome The Graduate Program in Plant Biology at The University of Texas at Austin has earned an international reputation for excellence in research and teaching in the plant sciences. The Plant Biology Program is a consortium of faculty from several sections of the School of Biological Sciences whose research is in one of six areas specializing in plants. These faculty supervise graduate students whose M.A. and Ph.D. degrees are based on empirical research focused on plants. The Graduate Program in Plant Biology supports graduate students with grants and assistantships in addition to the resources generally available in the Sections of the School of Biological Sciences. If you are a prospective student, you'll find information here ranging from admission requirements, research areas, faculty profiles and an overview of the extensive research facilities that The University of Texas at Austin has to offer. Plant Biology images. (Photo credit: Dr. Z. Jeffrey Chen/University of Texas at Austin; Shutterstock images) Site map | UT Austin | Copyright | Privacy | Accessibility @ 2006 School of Biological Sciences College of Natural Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin counter Northwestern University // Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Search site...______ Go Program in Plant Biology and Conservation * Home * About + Testimonials * Graduate + PhD Program + MS Program + Grants + Career and Professional Development + TGS Calendar * Undergraduate + Plant Biology Concentration + Combined Bachelor's/Master's Degree + Research Opportunities + Courses * People + Faculty + Students + Staff * Alumni + Research of Past Graduates + Alumni Communication * Research + Research Facilities + Research Areas * News and Events + Chicago Botanic Garden Events + Past Events + Recent Awards and Honors + News Archive + Publications Plant Biology Conservation The Program in Plant Biology and Conservation is a collaboration between Northwestern University and the Chicago Botanic Garden. The program offers PhD and MS degrees, as well as courses and research opportunities for undergraduates. Explore our site to learn more. In the Field Briscoe in the field Students in our program conduct research in both the field and the laboratory. Here Laura Briscoe is conducting research on bryophytes. News and Events Louise Egerton-Warburton, PhD has been awarded a booster grant of $30,000 from the Initiative for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern (ISEN) for her research Metagenomic Discovery of Novel Lignin Degrading Fungi for Biofuel Production. Matthew Rhodes was awarded a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research for $500 to support his Master's research focusing on how temporal variation in pollinator community structure influences reproductive dynamics and pollen movement in Oenothera harringtonii, an evening primrose endemic to southeastern Colorado, USA. His Master's advisor is Krissa Skogen. Byron Tsang defended his MS thesis "Environmental Factors Affecting Woodland Legume Restoration," on Tuesday, 27 November 2012 at 1:00 pm in the Plant Science Center Seminar Room at the Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe. Rebecca Tonietto, a third year PhD student has been awarded a Presidential Fellowship from Northwestern University's Graduate School for her research on determining the effects of tall grass prairie restoration on native bee communities. Her research supervisor is Dr. Dan Larkin. The fellowships are awarded to a very limited number of graduate students each year. PBC group on LinkedIn Join our LinkedIn Group About Our Partner Chicago Botanic Garden Explore the research and opportunities at the Plant Science Center at the Chicago Botanic Garden. Photo Gallery Program in Plant Biology and Conservation 2205 Tech Drive, O.T. Hogan Hall, Room 2-144, Evanston, IL 60208 USA Phone: voice+1-847-491-4031 Fax: fax+1-847-467-0525 E-mail: n-zerega@northwestern.edu Northwestern University | Judd A. and Marjorie Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Disclaimer and Policy Statements | Northwestern Calendar (c) 2012 Northwestern University Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences January 17, 2013 WHAT IS MYMET? Watch a video to find out. We're inviting you to share your favorite works of art using MyMet. See What's Your Met? for more information. Register Already have a mymet account? Sign in Email Address: ____________________ Forgotten your details? Password: ____________________ [ ] Stay logged in Sign In The Metropolitan Museum of Art Logo The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art Go to Navigation Go to Content Go to Search Search this web site ____________________ submit search * Visit + Hours and Admission + Plan Your Visit + Museum Map + Suggested Itineraries + Visit The Cloisters + Accessibility + Contact Information * Exhibitions + Current Exhibitions + Upcoming Exhibitions + Past Exhibitions * Collections + Browse Highlights + New Installations + Recent Acquisitions + Galleries + Search the Collections + Connections + Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History * Events + Find Events + Programs + Travel with the Met * Learn + For Kids + For Teens + For Adults + For College Students + For Educators + For Visitors with Disabilities * Research + Libraries and Study Centers + MetPublications + Internships and Fellowships + Archaeological Fieldwork + Conservation and Scientific Research + Curatorial Research + Image Resources + Provenance Research Project * Give and Join + Donate + Membership + Planned Giving + Benefit Parties + Corporate Support + Curatorial Friends Groups + Gifts in Honor or Memory * About the Museum + Now at the Met + The Met Around the World + Museum Mission Statement + History of the Museum + Museum Departments + Entertaining at the Met + Career and Volunteer Opportunities + Annual Reports + Collections Management Policy + Contact Information + Press Room * Shop Sign up for emails Email address_______ Sign up for emails Become a member MyMet Sign in / Register * Home > * Exhibitions > * Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings Shopping cart: Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings The exhibition is made possible by the Gail and Parker Gilbert Fund and the Jane and Robert Carroll Fund. Featured Media * Videos (9) [EMBED] Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. * Share * * Add to MyMet Submit Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Shield (Grere’o [?]) from the Solomon Islands Program information On the occasion of the exhibition Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings (on view June 5–September 3, 2012), the artist recorded his thoughts about various works of art in the Met's collection. Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Bird in Space, by Constantin Brancusi (00:01:26) 732 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:57) 1153 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Antoine Dominique Sauveur Aubert, (born 1817), the Artist's Uncle, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:47) 609 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Tlingit Ceremonial Copper (00:01:25) 198 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Cypriot Copper Ingot (00:01:19) 212 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Water Lilies, by Claude Monet (00:01:17) 681 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on his painting Blue Panel (00:01:47) 451 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on L'Arlésienne: Madame Joseph-Michel Ginoux (Marie Julien, 1848–1911), by Vincent van Gogh (00:01:23) 573 views Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings June 5–September 3, 2012 Accompanied by a catalogue and an Audio Guide One of the foremost artists of our day, Ellsworth Kelly (American, born 1923) may be best known for his rigorous abstract painting, but he has made figurative drawings throughout his career, creating an extraordinary body of work that now spans six decades. There has never been a major museum exhibition dedicated exclusively to the plant drawings. The selection of approximately eighty drawings begins in 1948 during Kelly's early sojourn in Paris and continues throughout his travels to his most recent work made in upstate New York. Related Content A free iTunes app was created in conjunction with two recent Ellsworth Kelly exhibitions in Munich. Met Media Met Media Met Kids Met Kids Met Store Met Store * Accessibility * Site Index * Terms and Conditions * Privacy Policy * Acknowledgments * Press © 2000–2012 The Metropolitan Museum of Art. All rights reserved. GA, the Society for Medicinal Plant and Natural Product Research (“Gesellschaft für Arzneipflanzen- und Naturstoff-Forschung”), was founded in 1953 in Bad Camberg, Germany, for the purpose of promotion and dissemination of medicinal plant research. Over the years GA has developed into an international scientific society with at present ca. 1400 members from 82 countries. The scientific interests of GA cover nowadays all aspects of medicinally used natural products like agricultural science, biology, chemistry, pharmacy, pharmacognosy, pharmacology and medicine. Since 1953 Planta Medica is the official journal of the society. Its impact factor is 2.037 (in 2009). GA organizes every year a large international congress on medicinal plant research in major European cities, and every 5 years joint meetings with related European and North American scientific societies. Besides, GA is setting up and supporting smaller symposia and workshops on specific topics related to natural product research. GA has established 5 permanent committees which elaborate and disseminate information on the following topics: · Biological and Pharmacological Activities of Natural Compounds · Breeding and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants · Manufacturing and Quality Control of Herbal Medicinal Products · Regulatory Affairs on Herbal Medicinal Products · Young Researchers Workshops Reasons for a Membership · To promote science and the dissemination of medicinal plant research. · To get informed on all activities of GA in first priority. · To join a group of people interested in the same field. · To get financial support for attending the scientific annual congress of GA. · To receive a financial discount in many areas related to GA. · To find the abstract book of the annual GA congress published in the members’ area of our homepage or to receive a free print copy on request in case you could not attend. · To subscribe to the journal Planta Medica at reduced subscription rates. · To become active in the planning of the future of GA. Benefits of a Membership · Continuous information on activities inside and outside the GA by a newsletter twice a year. · Being on the mailing list of all congresses and symposia organized by GA. · Access to closed sites of the GA homepage. · Reduced fees at congresses/symposia of GA. · Travel grants for students or young scientists to attend the annual congress of GA. · Free copy of the abstract book of the annual GA congress for members who did not attend. · Reduced subscription rates for Planta Medica either in “print” or “online only” version. #HuffPost Search The Full Feed Latest News The Blog Featured Posts Kathy Freston: A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet Kathy Freston: A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet HuffPost's QuickRead... Loading... HuffPost's QuickRead... 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GerardKlaus SchwabDavid BromwichJim Wallis Kathy Freston Kathy Freston Bestselling Author, "Veganist: Lose Weight, Get Healthy, Change the World" GET UPDATES FROM Kathy Freston Like [DEL: :DEL] 1k A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet Posted: 09/24/09 09:34 AM ET React [follow-arrow.png] Amazing Inspiring Funny Scary Hot Crazy Important Weird Follow [follow-arrow.png] Cancer , Cancer Cure , Health , Plant-Based Diet , Kathy Freston , Animal Protein , Carcinogens , Casein , Cure For Cancer , Nurtition , Preventative Medicine , T. Colin Campbell , Healthy Living News share this story Get Healthy Living Alerts ____________________ Sign Up Submit this story digg reddit stumble I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteemed doctors are saying is just beginning to be understood and accepted, perhaps because what they are saying does not conveniently fit in with or support the multi-billion dollar food industries that profit from our "not knowing". One thing is for sure: we are getting sicker and more obese than our health care system can handle, and the conventional methods of dealing with disease often have harmful side effects and are ineffective for some patients. As it is now, one out of every two of us will get cancer or heart disease and die from it - an ugly and painful death as anyone who has witnessed it can attest. And starting in the year 2000, one out of every three children who are born after that year will develop diabetes--a disease that for most sufferers (those with Type 2 diabetes) is largely preventable with lifestyle changes. This is a rapidly emerging crisis, the seriousness of which I'm not sure we have yet recognized. The good news is, the means to prevent and heal disease seems to be right in front of us; it's in our food. Quite frankly, our food choices can either kill us - which mounting studies say that they are, or they can lift us right out of the disease process and into soaring health. In the next few months, I will share a series of interviews I've conducted with the preeminent doctors and nutritional researchers in the fields of their respective expertise. And here it is straight out: they are all saying the same thing in different ways and through multiple and varying studies: animal protein seems to greatly contribute to diseases of nearly every type; and a plant-based diet is not only good for our health, but it's also curative of the very serious diseases we face . Cancer On the subject of cancer, I've asked Dr. T. Colin Campbell, Professor Emeritus of Cornell University and author of the groundbreaking The China Study to explain how cancer happens and what we can do to prevent and reverse it. Dr. Campbell's work is regarded by many as the definitive epidemiological examination of the relationship between diet and disease. He has received more than 70 grant years of peer-reviewed research funding, much of which was funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), and he has authored more than 300 research papers. He grew up on a dairy farm believing in the great health value of animal protein in the American diet and set out in his career to investigate how to produce more and better animal protein. Troublesome to his preconceived hypothesis of the goodness of dairy, Dr. Campbell kept running up against results that consistently proved an emerging and comprehensive truth: that animal protein is disastrous to human health. Through a variety of experimental study designs, epidemiological evidence, along with observation of real life conditions which had rational biological explanation, Dr. Campbell has made a direct and powerful correlation between cancer (and other diseases and illnesses) and animal protein. Following is a conversation I had with him so that I could better understand the association. KF: What happens in the body when cancer develops? What is the actual process? TCC: Cancer generally develops over a long period of time, divided into 3 stages, initiation, promotion and progression. Initiation occurs when chemicals or other agents attack the genes of normal cells to produce genetically modified cells capable of eventually causing cancer. The body generally repairs most such damage but if the cell reproduces itself before it is repaired, its new (daughter) cell retains this genetic damage. This process may occur within minutes and, to some extent, is thought to be occurring most of the time in most of our tissues. Promotion occurs when the initiated cells continue to replicate themselves and grow into cell masses that eventually will be diagnosed. This is a long growth phase occurring over months or years and is known to be reversible. Progression occurs when the growing cancer masses invade neighboring tissues and/or break away from the tissue of origin (metastasis) and travel to distant tissues when they are capable of growing independently at which point they are considered to be malignant. KF: Why do some people get cancer, and other don't? What percentage is genetic, and what percentage has to do with diet? TCC: Although the initiated cells are not considered to be reversible, the cells growing through the promotion stage are usually considered to be reversible, a very exciting concept. This is the stage that especially responds to nutritional factors. For example, the nutrients from animal based foods, especially the protein, promote the development of the cancer whereas the nutrients from plant-based foods, especially the antioxidants, reverse the promotion stage. This is a very promising observation because cancer proceeds forward or backward as a function of the balance of promoting and anti-promoting factors found in the diet, thus consuming anti-promoting plant-based foods tend to keep the cancer from going forward, perhaps even reversing the promotion. The difference between individuals is almost entirely related to their diet and lifestyle practices. Although all cancer and other diseases begin with genes, this is not the reason whether or not the disease actually appears. If people do the right thing during the promotion stage, perhaps even during the progression stage, cancer will not appear and if it does, might even be resolved. Most estimates suggest that not more than 2-3 percent of cancers are due entirely to genes; almost all the rest is due to diet and lifestyle factors. Consuming plant based foods offers the best hope of avoiding cancer, perhaps even reversing cancer once it is diagnosed. Believing that cancer is attributed to genes is a fatalistic idea but believing that cancer can be controlled by nutrition is a far more hopeful idea. KF: You said that initially something attacks the genes, chemicals or other agents; like what? TCC: Cancer, like every other biological event--good or bad--begins with genes. In the case of cancer, gene(s) that give rise to cancer either may be present when we are born or, during our lifetimes, normal genes may be converted into cancer genes by certain highly reactive chemicals (i.e., carcinogens). Consider 'cancer genes' as seeds that grow into tumor masses only if they are 'fed'. The 'feeding' comes from wrongful nutrition. It's like growing a lawn. We plant seeds but they don't grow into grass (or weeds) unless they are provided water, sunlight and nutrients. So it is with cancer. In reality, we are planting seeds all of our lifetime although some may be present at birth, not only for cancer but also for other events as well. But this mostly does not matter unless we 'nourish' their growth. The chemicals that create these cancer genes are called 'carcinogens'. Most carcinogens of years past have been those that attack normal genes to give cancer genes. These are initiating carcinogens, or initiators. But more recently, carcinogens also may be those that promote cancer growth. They are promoting carcinogens, or promoters. Our work showed that casein is the most relevant cancer promoter ever discovered. Aside from chemicals initiating or promoting cancer, other agents such as cosmic rays (energetic particles) from the sun or from the outer reaches of space may impact our genes to cause them to change (i.e., mutate) so that they could give rise to cancer 'seeds'. The most important point to consider is that we cannot do much about preventing initiation but we can do a lot about preventing promotion. The initiating idea is fatalistic and outside of our control but the promotion idea is hopeful because we can change our exposure to promoting agents and reverse the cancer process, thus is within our control. KF: What exactly is so bad about animal protein? TCC: I don't choose the word "exactly" because it suggests something very specific. Rather, casein causes a broad spectrum of adverse effects. Among other fundamental effects, it makes the body more acidic, alters the mix of hormones and modifies important enzyme activities, each of which can cause a broad array of more specific effects. One of these effects is its ability to promote cancer growth (by operating on key enzyme systems, by increasing hormone growth factors and by modifying the tissue acidity). Another is its ability to increase blood cholesterol (by modifying enzyme activities) and to enhance atherogenesis, which is the early stage of cardiovascular disease. And finally, although these are casein-specific effects, it should be noted that other animal-based proteins are likely to have the same effect as casein. KF: Ok, so I am clear that it's wise to avoid casein, which is intrinsic in dairy (milk and cheese), but how is other animal protein, such as chicken, steak, or pork, implicated in the cause and growth of cancer? TCC: I would first say that casein is not just "intrinsic" but IS THE MAIN PROTEIN OF COW MILK, REPRESENTING ABOUT 87% OF THE MILK PROTEIN. The biochemical systems which underlie the adverse effects of casein are also common to other animal-based proteins. Also, the amino acid composition of casein, which is the characteristic primarily responsible for its property, is similar to most other animal-based proteins. They all have what we call high 'biological value', in comparison, for example, with plant-based proteins, which is why animal protein promotes cancer growth and plant protein doesn't. KF: Isn't anything in moderation ok, as long as we don't overdo it? TCC: I rather like the expression told by my friend, Caldwell Esselstyn, Jr., MD, the Cleveland Clinic surgeon who reversed heart disease and who says, "Moderation kills!" I prefer to go the whole way, not because we have fool-proof evidence showing that 100% is better than, say, 95% for every single person for every single condition but that it is easier to avoid straying off on an excursion that too often becomes a slippery slope back to our old ways. Moreover, going the whole way allows us to adapt to new unrealized tastes and to rid ourselves of some old addictions. And finally, moderation often means very different things for different people. KF: Are you saying that if one changes their diet from animal based protein to plant-based protein that the disease process of cancer can be halted and reversed? TCC: Yes, this is what our experimental research shows. I also have become aware of many anecdotal claims by people who have said that their switch to a plant-based diet stopped even reversed (cured?) their disease. One study on melanoma has been published in the peer-reviewed literature that shows convincing evidence that cancer progression is substantially halted with this diet. KF: How long does it take to see changes? TCC: It is not clear because carefully designed research in humans has not been done. However, we demonstrated and published findings showing that experimental progression of disease is at least suspended, even reversed, when tumors are clearly present. KF: Consider a person who has been eating poorly his whole life; is there still hope that a dietary change can make a big difference? Or is everything already in motion? TCC: Yes, a variety of evidence shows that cancers and non-cancers alike can be stopped even after consuming a poor diet earlier in life. This effect is equivalent to treatment, a very exciting concept. KF: This is sounding like it's a cure for cancer; is that the case? TCC: Yes. The problem in this area of medicine is that traditional doctors are so focused on the use of targeted therapies (chemo, surgery, radiation) that they refuse to even acknowledge the use of therapies like nutrition and are loathe to even want to do proper research in this area. So, in spite of the considerable evidence--theoretical and practical--to support a beneficial nutritional effect, every effort will be made to discredit it. It's a self-serving motive. KF: What else do you recommend one does to avoid, stop, or reverse cancer? TCC: A good diet, when coupled with other health promoting activities like exercise, adequate fresh air and sunlight, good water and sleep, will be more beneficial. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. For help on how to lean into a plant based diet, check out my blog post here; and for recipes click here. For more information about diet and cancer, visit tcolincampbell.org. This Blogger's Books from Amazon indiebound The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss by Kathy Freston * Health * chronic conditions * Diet * Cáncer I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... 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[trans.gif] Presidential Health Lessons: The Obamas' Greatest Health... [trans.gif] Preventing and Treating Influenza With Natural Medicines [display_comments_title.gif] * Comments * 485 * Pending Comments * 0 * View FAQ Comments are closed for this entry Community Notice: We've made some changes to our badge program, including the addition of our newest badge: Community Curator. View All Favorites Bloggers Recency | Popularity Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) CindyAustinInLA 1 Fans 04:04 PM on 11/06/2009 I’m a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this DVD that features Kathy Freston called “The Path of Wellness & Healing” at a conference and it’s the best resource i have EVER seen for anyone with breast cancer or their families. My husband was given SO MANY BOOKS and who has the time to read when you’re dealing with something like this? This DVD was a one-stop shop that walks you through the entire bc experience with celeb survivors like Sheryl Crow and Christina Applegate and the world’s greatest doctors like Deepak Chopra and Dean Ornish. You’ll learn, you’l be inspired, you’ll probably cry and you might even laugh! Check it out!!! http://breastcancerdvd.org. CindyAustinInLA: Iâm a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/CindyAustinInLA/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_34079828.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 01:46 AM on 11/07/2009 That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. Everyone should watch it. Then it gives you access to other related videos that you cannot find elsewhere. Here is a University of California video about cancer and vitamin D. It shows that the latest research demonstrates that vitamin D can greatly reduce cancer rates including breast cancer. If enough people watch this video, it can greatly reduce the cancer that exists. It shows that the amounts of vitamin D needed to greatly reduce your chance of getting cancer is much more than the amount needed to prevent rickets or bone problems. It also tells how to find out just how much you need. It also has side effect of lowering your chances of getting the flu. You can even get free vitamin D from sunlight. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQ-qekFoi-o&feature=player_embedded# whizkid7: That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_34106139.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Jamsco 0 Fans 07:31 PM on 10/30/2009 I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has been shown to be healthier than starving yourself on plant leaves and flaxseeds. My dad was diagnosed with stage 1 colon cancer and did the Budwig Protocol without orthodox treatments and was dead in a year. I believe the war on cancer by the establishment is a joke, there are effective cancer treatments other than chemo and radiation, (Ronald Reagan was a good example). You should avoid sugars as well when diagnosed with cancer. I also believe many of these natural cure websites are ran by left-wing extremists with pro-animal, anti-corporation agendas(except when they make money of course). Ancient people, native tribes, eskimos were all fish and meat eaters(omnivores). According to the quacks you should only eat raw fruits and vegetables, nothing else! Meat and fish with fruits and vegetables is healthy with exercise. Increased chemicals in foods, water, meats, shampoos, ect i beleive are the real culprits in rising cancer rates. These alternative quacks make big money themselves with their water ionizers, supplements, ect. Be careful of these plant-based diet claims, some of these treatments have only 5% cure rates. Many alternative claims contradict each other if you study them. Jamsco: I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33700928.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 09:25 AM on 11/04/2009 Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as much as one person being cured by an alternative cure. They both mean nothing except to make you prejudiced against alternative medicine. For example if a fat person killed my father, then I may become prejudiced against fat people. The Eskimos have an average life span of only 60 years. John Hopkins Medical School says that cancer is a disease of many factors. They have broccoli sprouts in food stores that they have patented by making them extra high in sulforophane-- a cacner fighting phytochemical. Their Brassica Foundation is studying plants to use for cures for cancer and other diseases. As far as many factors, that means the pollution from the air, the pollution in your house and many other things can affect cancer. For example someone who does not smoke can get lung cancer from second hand smoke. http://www.graviolaleaves.com There is a University of California video on youtube about cancer and vitamin D. It show that vitamin D is very effective at preventing cancer according to recent studies. whizkid7: Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_33919345.html History | Permalink | Share it Jamsco 0 Fans 02:41 PM on 11/04/2009 You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against alternative cures. I said the governments war on cancer is a joke. The reason for my post is to expose the people and websites behind this vegetarian movement being pushed down our throats. Many studies contradict other studies. Vegans will say things that are true and leave out many other things that are true that don't support what they say. I rarely see omnivores attacking vegetarians, it is always the other way around. If your way is so great why are many types of cancers and other illnesses more common with vegetarians. Why do vegetarians still make up about 35% of all cancer diagnosis' even though there are fewer of them in society? The omnivores with the "cancer rates", yous' don't consider other lifestyle factors that i'm sure contribute to them getting various ailments. This vegetarian agenda is about a much broader agenda to push their extremist left-wing agenda and to eventually restrict what we eat, to ban guns and hunting, and their anti-capitalist agenda. Jamsco: You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33941923.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. There are More Comments on this Thread. Click Here To See them All spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… KJcured 1 Fans 10:08 AM on 10/28/2009 I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. In Feb. of this year I was diagnosed with STAGE IV IDC breast cancer: multiple tumors in my right breast, multiple tumors in the lymph nodes of my right arm pit, multiple tumors behind my sternum and a large cancerous mass in the bone of my sternum. I began eating mostly fruits & veggies in March of this year and as of my latest PET scan in August, the mass in the bone of my sternum is GONE, the tumors behind my sternum are gone and I'm down to a single much reduced tumor in my right breast and a single much reduced tumor in my right arm pit! I have had no chemo, radiation or other chemical treatment. I am proud to say that we are ALL capable of curing our own disease... with information! Thanks to the author for spreading this life saving news. KCB / Fayetteville, Georgia KJcured: I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/KJcured/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_33549468.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 06:53 PM on 10/12/2009 I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on this article and I find that the level of misunderstood, misinterpreted comment alarming. It is clear to me that most folks really do not have any basic grounding in science. Campbell's work in the 1980s - BEFORE he emabrked on the China study showed that the major protein in cow's milk - CASEIN - is a promoter of cancer! Its is NOT a carcinogen in its own right. Then there was a thread about Kefir ( a fermented milk product and one of many from the Balkans and Eastern Europe). Somehow the writer has got the idea that casein is OK after all - its in Kefir and the longevity of people in the Balkans shows its OK. A quick Google Scholar seacrch will get you to the research. Casein is digested by the bacteria in kefir. Go back and read Cambpells book. Get your science correct! renew2: I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32689809.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 08:10 AM on 10/11/2009 I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have started on the crits. I am hardly surprised at the crits - Campbell is reporting on stuff that is controversial to say the very least. I do not intend to comment on his credibility nor on the crits but offer this. We evolved as hunter gatherers and as such we would have eaten a diet that contained the occasional meat, nuts, berries, fruit and any other plant based material found ( by trial and error) to be non-toxic. This would have gone on for millenia. I venture to suggest that at no time along this pathway did we consume such large quantities of milk other than that delivered via breast feeding. If cow's milk casein is playing an unwanted role in cancer it might well be because of its "recent" appearance in our diet. renew2: I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32610577.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 01:09 AM on 09/29/2009 (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do find them useful as a lifestyle study subgroup compared to the general population). One article claims SVA's live to an average age of 88: here is a press story: http://www.chicagotribune.com/topic/sns-health-aging-centenarians,0,300 9292.story?track=rss-topicgallery. That is a 28 year difference compared to the 80% meat/fat diet Inuit. By the way, I do work in the health field serving the native "Indian" population. My experience tells me some significant changes need to be made in their diet and lifestyle - of great concern is the incredible epidemic in obesity related type II diabetes (reaching 80-100% of the adult population in some tribes), significant problems with heart disease, and in the increased rate of cancer compared to the general population. The natives of today do not look at all the same as their elders in the old turn of the century black and white photographs! Here is another link on a 2001 study: http://lifetwo.com/production/node/20070107-longevity-seventh-day-adven tists-life-expectancy Note on the above study - the life expectancy comparing vegetarian SVA vs. non-vegetarian SVA's. The difference is minimal based on diet, although statistically significant...2-2.5 years. Other lifestyle differences have the greater impact (9 years or so) - controlled weight vs. obesity, daily exercise or not, smoking history, and a daily bowl of nuts (LOL). Cerrec: (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828831.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 06:11 PM on 09/28/2009 Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. No study showed that with meat. There was no mention of the 500,000 people study that showed that meat causes cancer. http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/03/23/healthmag.red.meat.lifespan/index. html Chuck_Bluestein: Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31804828.html History | Permalink | Share it PublickStews 0 Fans 08:34 PM on 09/28/2009 Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? That study doesn't isolate the variable at all. It simply lumps everyone together based on meat consumption. Gee, you think there is a chance that the people who ate the most bacon and sausage ALSO ate lots of other crappy foods, and probably didn't eat a lot of vegetables and fruits, and probably ate in caloric excess? That study is completely meaningless. All it tells us is what we already know: that eating McDonalds instead of whole foods is bad for you. All these nonsense, anti-meat studies have a fatal flaw. They all rely on the false assumption that people with either eat lots of meat and no vegetables, or no meat and lots of vegetables. The best diet to prevent disease and avoid obesity is lean meat, lots of vegetables, and whole grains. The worst diet is processed garbage and American fast food. Most "plant based" diets fall somewhere in between. PublickStews: Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31814807.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 05:53 PM on 09/30/2009 That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) that is one of the 27 National Institutes of Health (NIH). So I do know what it means to isolate one variable. This study cost a great deal of money and was with half a billion people. Just kidding. It was only with half a million people. Right after it was done, it was all over the TV news. So you are saying that you are right and they are wrong. Well actually on this post, I started a thread (I am GINKGO on it) that complained about the same thing and said that if you change more than one variable then you do not know what caused the change. Now I had many people disagree with me, as you can see by looking at it. So what did I do? I gave them website after website after website that explained that exact thing-- called the scientific method. http://www.stevepavlina.com/forums/health-fitness/33137-most-health-pro blems-caused-lack-intelligence.html But then there are no phytochemicals in animal foods whereas plant foods contain thousands of phytochemicals like resveratrol (in dark grapes), lycopene (in tomatoes and watermelon) and sulphoropahane that is in broccoli sprouts. They have already identified over 900 phytochemicals, but who is counting? Chuck_Bluestein: That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31948770.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PublickStews 0 Fans 05:02 PM on 09/28/2009 Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, knee-jerk hippie readers who watch Oprah and shop at Whole Foods. Since Preston has written a book about "cleansing" (one of the biggest buzzwords in new age nonsense), this isn't surprising. Nowhere in the article does Preston acknowledge that Campbell's work has been widely criticized, or that his data barely matches up with his pronouncements. Nowhere do they mention that whey protein has been shown to have a protective effect, which throws his generalizations into question. And nowhere does she address the fact, documented by countless anthropologists, that indigenous hunter-gatherer societies like the Alaskan Inuit (who consumed a diet almost wholly comprised of animal protein, with 80% of calories coming from fat) had microscopic rates of cancer and heart disease. The American diet is deeply flawed, but it's not because of animal protein. If your diet consists mainly of lean meat, vegetables, and whole grains, and you are not eating in caloric excess, you are not at high risk for cancer or heart disease. To equate someone who eats chicken breasts and broccoli with someone who devours Big Macs on a regular basis is just plain intellectually dishonest. PublickStews: Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31799360.html History | Permalink | Share it Cerrec 0 Fans 01:08 AM on 09/29/2009 The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular disease increases with age, statistically accelerating after the 5th decade of life. The average lifespan of the Inuit population group is sixty, which is significantly eight years less than the Canadian average. So, those who think the Inuit are doing something right...you might want to rethink this. Here is a link - posting current dietary/lifesytle gov guidelines in the prevention of the above: http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=15&doc_id=5620&nbr=379 0 Cerrec: The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828822.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… seanpcooper 0 Fans 04:17 PM on 09/28/2009 HEY – read this! For the past 1.5 years or so I have inadvertently used myself as somewhat of a test bed that has pitted the low fat, plant based (high carbohydrate) diet against the Atkins, low carb, lifestyle. I say “lifestyle” because it is not a diet. I didn’t need to loose weight I was just concerned about high cholesterol. I first bought the China study as well as Dr. Caldwell Esselstyn’s book and followed them religiously for about 8 months. Everything was low fat (or non fat) plant based and absolutely no meat or dairy or even fish. Well after 8 months, I came down with Type 1 Diabetes! The carb load was so great that my pancrease crapped out on me. There are new studies now (google them) noting that a low fat diet equates to a high carb diet and that often ends up in Diabetes. My sugar levels were off the chart. I felt like suing Dr. Esselstyn and Campbell. I quickly droped the diet and Bought Dr. Bernsteins book about Diabeties. His approach was more or less that of Atkins or the Edeas’ Protein Power. My sugar levels were quickly brought down and in line with a “normal” non diabetic and what’s better – my cholesterol improved dramatically – go figure! I will never go back to “low fat” plant based. Basically it is pretty simple: my body now burns fat (yes bacon fat) instead of sugar (from bread). Interveiw Gary Taubes...please! seanpcooper: HEY â read this! For the past 1.5 years or http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/seanpcooper/a-cure-for-cancer-eati ng_b_298282_31795858.html History | Permalink | Share it Alvarask 419 Fans 11:56 PM on 09/28/2009 Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet or you will overload your pancreas. I did this to myself for years. I now understand that I need to eat meat WITH some animal fats to help regulate my blood sugar, while limiting white starches like rice and potatoes (I`m learning to use them more as a garnish than as a third or more of the meal), plus as many fruit and vegetables as my body tells me it wants when it has neither low nor high blood sugar. I had to work this out for myself. No doctor helped. Alvarask: Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Alvarask/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31826193.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… HUFFPOST SUPER USER rnm 52 Fans 10:34 PM on 10/04/2009 Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else was going on with you and how you got it has absolutely nothing to do with what you are proposing here. Please go do some very careful research on all of this because you are speaking out of complete ignorance on a plant based diet. TOTAL IGNORANCE.... rnm: Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/rnm/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_298 282_32216706.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… JamesNYC 8 Fans 03:18 PM on 09/28/2009 This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein causes cancer. It simply claims over and over again that there is overwhelming evidence. What journal are these findings published in? JamesNYC: This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/JamesNYC/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31791334.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER YeWight 94 Fans 01:12 PM on 09/28/2009 China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific scrutiny over the years, placing in doubt many of its conclusions. The study, nevertheless, had an interesting approach and design, but many flaws. You can research the subject for yourself, but here's just one article to tickle your fancy: http://www.babushkaskefir.com.au/historyofkefir.html The above is something that radically contradicts China Study casein claims. People in the Caucasus mountains are known to be some of the healthiest, longest living on the planet. The problem is - their diet is heavily based on a dairy product (kefir), which according to the China Study is bound to kill you (prematurely). Go figure. What will more than likely determine your future is in your genes, not so much in your diet. I have several nonagenarians in the family whose diet had always been heavy on dairy and meat and who happen to live long and healthy lives. And they are not an isolated example. Over the years, I have come across a number of families and individuals with similar histories and similar outcomes. YeWight: China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/YeWight/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_31782513.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… huntleyrussell 154 Fans 12:25 PM on 09/28/2009 Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect on cancer in our society because we consume so much of it. The average American consumes far more protein than required to meet our daily nutritional requirements (as much as 3 to 4 times as much in certain parts of the country). Protein is essentially for muscle growth, however the level or protein intake for Americans suggest we are all body builders, which we are not. Therefore, the excess protein in our diet becomes stored, primarily as fat, as our bodies are not able to use it all for growth. As cancer cells mutate, they require fuel to grow and expand. Eating the amount of meat we do, all of the excess fuel in our bodies provides a volatile situation for the growth of cancer. All of this is complicated exponentially by the use of hormones and the improper feeding of animal protein to our livestock, which pollutes a vast amount of meat and dairy products in the United States. A vegetarian diet provides the proper daily nutritional intake, as well as decreasing the risk of cancer by eliminating the fuel for its growth. huntleyrussell: Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/huntleyrussell/a-cure-for-cancer-e ating_b_298282_31779366.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PaleoMan 1 Fans 11:27 AM on 09/28/2009 I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, and his data on animal protein and cancer. While the link between casein and cancer seemed fairly well established, it seemed like much more of a leap to conclude that all animal protein causes or promotes cancer and there seemed to be little scientific support for this broader conclusion. Granted, some data on processed meats supports an increased cancer risk, but that might be explained by the nitrites and processing. There is a little known self published book written by DeLamar Gibbons, MD, who practiced medicine in the Four Corners Region on the Navajo Reservation for many decades. The book is entitled, Their Secrets: Why the Navaho Indians Never Get Cancer. Gibbons insisted that he had reviewed the records of 25,000 admissions to the Monument Valley Hospital and several other hospitals as well in outlying communities for the decades in question and had not found a single instance of a Navajo who practiced traditional taboos ever getting cancer of any kind. Gibbons sought to explore the differences that might account for the negligible cancer rates in traditional living Navajos. He found that dairy products were avoided. But grassfed meat was eaten in abundance, especially lamb and mutton. And grassfed meat is very high in conjugated linoleoic acid (CLA), which inhibits development and growth of cancer. In any event, the Navajos in question had anything but a vegan or vegetarian diet. PaleoMan: I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PaleoMan/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31775784.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER simplify 272 Fans 12:17 PM on 09/28/2009 Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. simplify: Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/simplify/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31778827.html History | Permalink | Share it photo multi LA 32 Fans 05:24 PM on 09/28/2009 I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned about what other people are eating... Since I've became a vegetarian you wouldn't believe the amount of backlash I have received from meat eaters about my eating choices.. People eat meat around me all the time and I don't criticize them.. multi_LA: I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/multi_LA/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31801119.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:51 AM on 09/28/2009 Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high fat dietary choices which are counter to our past million years of evolution and I believe we are suffering from this disparity. We have a coming disaster approaching us at one generation speed...a huge diabetes/obesity epidemic that will cost us billions of dollars to "doctor" without preventing/curing - out of the 1/3 children predicted to "go" type II diabetic, a sizable percentage will need dialysis 3x weekly as adults to survive! This is a billions dollar proposition, so something is going to have to change - we can't go down that road, folks. It was assumed (once) that the developement of agriculture in human society was a positive development leading towards increased health/longevity in the population...that assumption has been proved false...the roaming hunter/gather lifestyle has been proven to be better. Homo S. once had to be extremely active in order to survive...we were lean, mean, fighting machines...now we pack ourselves into a suv, drive to Walmart, walk around with a shipping cart, fill it to the brim, pack it home, and pack it in...while we sit front side to a tv/computer. Having said this, going out to my greenhouse for some fresh tomatoes, basil, and swiss chard....and it's time for me to go out for a long walk and pick up some wild pine nuts....and a brown trout or two... Good luck my fellow primates! Cerrec: Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31771059.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:49 AM on 09/28/2009 There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with mainland native americans, who presently suffer high rates of diabetes, heart disease, and obesity on our "modern world diet". When they have returned to their traditional diet/food gathering lifestyle = fewer calories, greater activity, less saturated fat ....basically pinenuts, seed grass, wild plants, minimal wild lean meat etc. there has been a statistically significant drop in signs of disease processes compared to their "modern lifestyle compatriots". What we have going on is far more complex than simply meat vs. vegan diets, although I think meat/dairy based diets have significant health issues. I would propose that the healthiest diet would be omnivorous tilted towards plants/seeds w/minimal amount of lean wild grown meat and minimal dairy - as close to possible to our 1 million year old natural diet that we are biologically adapted for (take away the extremes of Inuit/Alaskan native artic tundra). Noted are these human phys characteristics - relatively small jaw w/ small caninines, plant/seed grinding molars (not shearing molars as in predatory meat eating animals), a small stomach w/moderate ph acid & a long intestinal tract designed for extracting optimum amount of nutrition (calories) from plant based foods. Cerrec: There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31770977.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) new comment(s) on this entry — Click to refresh spinner Loading comments… TAKE CARE OF YOUR SMILE Powered By ZocDoc Sponsor Generated Post * 9 Resolutions You Shouldn't Have Made For 2013 (And What To Do About Them Now) + Quick Read | + Comments (18) | + 01.15.2013 FOLLOW US * Facebook * Twitter * Apple * Android * Blackberry * Email * Rss Connect with your friends Check out stories you might like, and see what your friends are sharing! 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All rights reserved. * Part of AOL Lifestyle Quantcast HuffPost Lightbox #Grasscity.com Forums RSS Feed Grasscity.com Forums - Indoor Marijuana Growing - RSS Feed Grasscity.com - the best counter-culture community User Name User Name_ Password __________ Log in * > register! * > lost your password * grasscity shop * grasscity community * smoking and usage * chill out zone * marijuana cultivation * marijuana news and discussions * Forum Help Blogs Recent Entries Best Entries Best Blogs Blog List Search Blogs Go Back Grasscity.com Forums > MARIJUANA CULTIVATION > Indoor Marijuana Growing Reload this Page why is my plant taking forever to grow? Register Blogs FAQ Photo Gallery Calendar Search Today's Posts Mark Forums Read Notices Grasscity.com 10% Discount Like us on Facebook for up to date news regarding product updates, Grasscity discount coupons, forum news, competitions and give aways. Keep in touch with Grasscity via your favorite social network. 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My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe Reply View First Unread View First Unread LinkBack Thread Tools Search this Thread #1 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:45 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe a foot. i super cropped one time and i accidently topped her. i had ph issuse which made fan leafs curl in and pretty much die so i pulled them off. im using FFHF 150hps light and i just trans planted maybe a week ago to a 3 gallon pot. when i transplanted i think it was root bound and i removed the lower 2 branches to feed the top 2 node sites. what is wrong? did i put to much stress on her? and im using fox farm nutes Reply With Quote #2 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:47 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ and i fixed my ph issuses Reply With Quote #3 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:50 PM kenny357 is offline kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 Registered User kenny357's Avatar Join Date: Dec 2010 Posts: 117 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ What size pot did you start in? Let the roots fill out that new pot a bit and she'll probably blow up. Reply With Quote #4 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:35 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. Reply With Quote #5 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:43 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ you waited way to long on transplant and thats your problem. Your canopy can only grow as much as the roots grow my friend. I transplant to a 5 gallon wide after 1 week in the 1 gallon pot cause if you wait to long your plant wont grow. considering you just got to transplanting it you had Ph problems your plant is probably mad stressed. IMO scrap it and start over especially if you haven't started the flowering stage. It takes 3 weeks for my cutting to go from 4 inches to 15 inches in three weeks time with a 150 watt HPS with AN nutes. Even when I was using and LED for veg and fox farm nutes my plants would get over 15 inches in no more than four weeks. IMO it would be a waste of time to continue threw with the flower since it has struggled so much through the veg. so i say scrap it start over and you will be in a better position in four weeks my friends. little fyi I had to use almost full strength of fox farms trio and powders according to their schedule every watering instead of just two times a week, didn't burn it. Ph water to 6.2 as well and transplant at the most ten days after being in a one gallon pot suggest five gallon wide and if you can't do that get three gallon wide pots. Reply With Quote #6 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:46 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. there you go man it was root bound for all you know the roots could be wrapped all around each other which will cause problems later on in the grow. your plant is probably so stressed that it wont even start to grow in the new pot for a couple days to week. Reply With Quote #7 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:19 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Reply With Quote #8 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:31 PM Bkinboston is offline Bkinboston humbly walks among the Blades Bkinboston Registered User Bkinboston's Avatar Join Date: Jul 2012 Location: Boston/Brooklyn Posts: 67 Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Yea it should bounce back in a week , you might have to baby it until. Reply With Quote #9 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:42 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ will do thank you everyone!!!! Reply With Quote Reply << Previous Thread | Next Thread >> Thread Tools Search this Thread Show Printable Version Show Printable Version Email this Page Email this Page Search this Thread: ____________________ Go Advanced Search Posting Rules You may not post new threads You may not post replies You may not post attachments You may not edit your posts __________________________________________________________________ BB code is On Smilies are On [IMG] code is On HTML code is Off Trackbacks are On Pingbacks are On Refbacks are Off __________________________________________________________________ Forum Rules All times are GMT +1. The time now is 11:16 PM. 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Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Welcome to The Green Wall & Green Roof Source Plant Connection Unveils Largest Living Wall in Baltimore Click for Full Size View On September 28, a more than two thousand square-foot exterior G-O[2]^TM Living Wall was unveiled on the building façade of One East Pratt Street in Baltimore, making it the largest living wall in Maryland. The G-O[2]^TM Living Wall has some important features that will help advance the success of living architecture, including the use of a unique, cutting edge, remote monitoring system. This technology was first installed in another very large iconic living wall in Pittsburgh during a complete overhaul in May of 2012 that included an upgraded G-O[2]^TM Living Wall system, irrigation system, and state-of-the-art remote monitoring sensors provided by Plant Connection, Inc. This valuable data recorded in two of the largest exterior living walls in the United States will be studied and used to help inform and further advance the greater green wall industry as a whole. View Newsletter. American Cancer Society Hope Lodge G-O[2]^TM Living Wall Click for Full Size View Plant Connection had the wonderful privilege and honor to create a living wall at the American Cancer Society Hope Lodge, Jerome L. Greene Family Center in Manhattan. Hope Lodge wanted to expand on their outdoor terrace and provide guests the opportunity to connect with nature for therapeutic benefits. They felt the addition of a G-O[2]^TM Living Wall would enhance the space and further aid in creating a peaceful communal area. Thanks to their generous support, PNC sponsored the living wall, drawing inspiration from their iconic design at PNC Bank in Pittsburgh, PA. The PNC green wall planting design was originally created by Kari Elwell Katzander of Mingo Design. View Newsletter. Department of Environment and Natural Resources G-O2 Living Walls Click for Full Size View G-O[2]^TM Living Walls were used to help make the DENR building the "greenest" complex in Raleigh. The green walls represent one of many components of the Green Square Complex that illustrate the most current sustainable design strategies. The living walls were designed to be multidimensional, meaning they wrap around the wall sides. It is hoped that the Green Square Complex will serve as a national model of environmental efficiency and sustainability. View Newsletter. Canisius College G-O[2]^TM Living Wall Click for Full Size View Canisius College installed two 8' x 20' G-O[2]^TM Living Walls. The living walls greet visitors to Science Hall and are located in busy hallways between labs and classrooms. They add life and most importantly oxygen to the populated space, where students and professors may spend their entire day indoors. These green walls also act as a visual reminder that science and nature are infinitely intertwined. View Newsletter. NYU Law Goes Green with G-O[2]^TM Green Walls Click for Full Size View 22 Washington Square North is now the home of one of the Universitys greenest buildings, which received LEED Silver Certification. A 5-story G-O[2]^TM Green Wall of cascading plants provides the Law School with an innovative office environment. Set within a very small outdoor courtyard of less than 15 feet between the buildings, the green wall was designed to be enjoyed from inside. Instead of looking out to a blank brick wall, the offices on each of the floors now have a growing, green view mirroring their window. A glass elevator within the space offers an even greater vertical view, capturing each wall at different levels. Green Wall design by Plant Connection, Inc. Read NYU's Press Release. View Newsletter. The mgv pre-grown GroRoofs^TM modules are lightweight, affordable, and easy to install. Our pre-grown G-O[2]^TM Growall products can be used for interior or exterior vertical garden projects. We also offer green roof soil media and other green roof accessories. Call us today for help in planning your green roof or green wall project. Let our team of experts guide you through from concept to installation and maintenance of your next green roof or green wall. Stepables Banner Plant Connection Inc. are experienced growers and nursery representatives. Our 42-acre nursery in Eastern Long Island is home to larger, landscape-sized woody shrubs and trees. Proudly representing Quansett Nursery perennials, annuals, herbs, and Groundcovers. Van Essen Banner Riverhead, NY o Phone: 1-888-78PLANT o Fax: 631-722-8787 © 2013 Plant Connection, Inc. o Privacy Policy Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture The International Treaty has a new Website at www.planttreaty.org THE INTERNATIONAL TREATY ON PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE [arrowo.gif] official versions of the Treaty [arrowo.gif] video on the Treaty [arrowo.gif] signatures and ratifications [arrowo.gif] comments on compliance [arrowo.gif] Funding Strategy questionnaire [arrowo.gif] study on Compliance [arrowo.gif] Comments on compliance and the Funding Strategy, following the request of the Open-ended Working Group [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are crucial in feeding the world's population. They are the raw material that farmers and plant breeders use to improve the quality and productivity of our crops. The future of agriculture depends on international cooperation and on the open exchange of the crops and their genes that farmers all over the world have developed and exchanged over 10,000 years. No country is sufficient in itself. All depend on crops and the genetic diversity within these crops from other countries and regions. After seven years of negotiations, the FAO Conference (through Resolution 3/2001) adopted the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, in November 2001. This legally-binding Treaty covers all plant genetic resources relevant for food and agriculture. It is in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Treaty is vital in ensuring the continued availability of the plant genetic resources that countries will need to feed their people. We must conserve for future generations the genetic diversity that is essential for food and agriculture. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] What are "plant genetic resources for food and agriculture"? The Treaty defines them as "any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture". [arrowgr.gif] What are the Treaty's objectives? Its objectives are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security. [arrowgr.gif] What is the Multilateral System for Access and Benefit-Sharing? Through the Treaty, countries agree to establish an efficient, effective and transparent Multilateral System to facilitate access to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and to share the benefits in a fair and equitable way. The Multilateral System applies to over 64 major crops and forages. The Governing Body of the Treaty, which will be composed of the countries that have ratified it, will set out the conditions for access and benefit-sharing in a "Material Transfer Agreement". [arrowgr.gif] What are the conditions for access in the Multilateral System? Resources may be obtained from the Multilateral System for utilization and conservation in research, breeding and training. When a commercial product is developed using these resources, the Treaty provides for payment of an equitable share of the resulting monetary benefits, if this product may not be used without restriction by others for further research and breeding. If others may use it, payment is voluntary. [arrowgr.gif] How will benefits be shared? The Treaty provides for sharing the benefits of using plant genetic resources for food and agriculture through information-exchange, access to and the transfer of technology, and capacity-building. It also foresees a funding strategy to mobilize funds for activities, plans and programmes the help, above all, small farmers in developing countries. This funding strategy also includes the share of the monetary benefits paid under the Multilateral System. [arrowgr.gif] How does the Treaty protect Farmers' Rights? The Treaty recognizes the enormous contribution that farmers and their communities have made and continue to make to the conservation and development of plant genetic resources. This is the basis for Farmers' Rights, which include the protection of traditional knowledge, and the right to participate equitably in benefit-sharing and in national decision-making about plant genetic resources. It gives governments the responsibility for implementing these rights. [arrowgr.gif] Who benefits from the Treaty and how? All benefit, in many ways: [arrowo.gif] Farmers and their communities, through Farmers' Rights; [arrowo.gif] Consumers, because of a greater variety of foods, and of agriculture products, as well as increased food security; [arrowo.gif] The scientific community, through access to the plant genetic resources crucial for research and plant breeding; [arrowo.gif] International Agricultural Research Centres, whose collections the Treaty puts on a safe and long-term legal footing; [arrowo.gif] Both the public and private sectors, which are assured access to a wide range of genetic diversity for agricultural development; and [arrowo.gif] The environment, and future generations, because the Treaty will help conserve the genetic diversity necessary to face unpredictable environmental changes, and future human needs. [arrowgr.gif] When did the Treaty come into force? The Treaty came into force on 29 June 2004, ninety days after forty governments had ratified it. Governments that have ratified it will make up its Governing Body. At its first meeting, this Governing Body will address important questions, such as the level, form and manner of monetary payments on commercialization, a standard Material Transfer Agreement for plant genetic resources, mechanisms to promote compliance with the Treaty, and the funding strategy. [arrowgr.gif] What's next? Each country that ratifies will then develop the legislation and regulations it needs to implement the Treaty. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowo.gif] Official versions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [arrowo.gif] Video on the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [arab.gif] [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] Back to the Commission's Welcome page __________________________________________________________________ Agriculture 21 CGRFA Home Page [tag_logo.jpg]-Submit [funfacts_up.jpg]-Submit [treecareinfo_up.jpg]-Submit [faq_up.jpg]-Submit [mediasource_up.jpg]-Submit [findservice_up.jpg]-Submit [resources_up.jpg]-Submit [top_right_image.jpg]-Submit Tree Care Information [bottom_right_leaf.jpg]-Submit Skip Navigation Links Why Hire an Arborist Benefits of Trees Value of Trees Tree Selection Buying High Quality Trees Avoiding Tree and Utility Conflicts New Tree Planting Mature Tree Care Plant Health Care Palms Trees and Turf Proper Mulching Techniques Pruning Young Trees Pruning Mature Trees Why Topping Hurts Trees Insect and Disease Problems Recognizing Tree Hazards Avoiding Tree Damage During Construction Treatment of Trees Damaged by Construction Contact Us ____________________ Search Skip Navigation Links Home > Tree Care Information > New Tree Planting New Tree Planting Think of the tree you just purchased as a lifetime investment. How well your tree, and investment, grows depends on the type of tree and location you select for planting, the care you provide when the tree is planted, and follow-up care the tree receives after planting. Planting the Tree The ideal time to plant trees and shrubs is during the dormant season and in the fall after leaf drop or early spring before budbreak. Weather conditions are cool and allow plants to establish roots in the new location before spring rains and summer heat stimulate new top growth. However, trees properly cared for in the nursery or garden center, and given the appropriate care during transport to prevent damage, can be planted throughout the growing season. In tropical and subtropical climates where trees grow year round, any time is a good time to plant a tree, provided that sufficient water is available. In either situation, proper handling during planting is essential to ensure a healthy future for new trees and shrubs. Before you begin planting your tree, be sure you have had all underground utilities located prior to digging. If the tree you are planting is balled or bare root, it is important to understand that its root system has been reduced by 90 to 95 percent of its original size during transplanting. As a result of the trauma caused by the digging process, trees commonly exhibit what is known as transplant shock. Containerized trees may also experience transplant shock, particularly if they have circling roots that must be cut. Transplant shock is indicated by slow growth and reduced vigor following transplanting. Proper site preparation before and during planting coupled with good follow-up care reduces the amount of time the plant experiences transplant shock and allows the tree to quickly establish in its new location. Carefully follow nine simple steps, and you can significantly reduce the stress placed on the plant at the time of planting. 1. Dig a shallow, broad planting hole. Make the hole wide, as much as three times the diameter of the root ball but only as deep as the root ball. It is important to make the hole wide because the roots on the newly establishing tree must push through surrounding soil in order to establish. On most planting sites in new developments, the existing soils have been compacted and are unsuitable for healthy root growth. Breaking up the soil in a large area around the tree provides the newly emerging roots room to expand into loose soil to hasten establishment. 2. Identify the trunk flare. The trunk flare is where the roots spread at the base of the tree. This point should be partially visible after the tree has been planted (see diagram). If the trunk flare is not partially visible, you may have to remove some soil from the top of the root ball. Find it so you can determine how deep the hole needs to be for proper planting. 3. Remove tree container for containerized trees. Carefully cutting down the sides of the container may make this easier. Inspect the root ball for circling roots and cut or remove them. Expose the trunk flare, if necessary. 4. Place the tree at the proper height. Before placing the tree in the hole, check to see that the hole has been dug to the proper depth and no more. The majority of the roots on the newly planted tree will develop in the top 12 inches of soil. If the tree is planted too deeply, new roots will have difficulty developing because of a lack of oxygen. It is better to plant the tree a little high, 2 to 3 inches above the base of the trunk flare, than to plant it at or below the original growing level. This planting level will allow for some settling (see diagram). To avoid damage when setting the tree in the hole, always lift the tree by the root ball and never by the trunk. 5. Straighten the tree in the hole. Before you begin backfilling, have someone view the tree from several directions to confirm that the tree is straight. Once you begin backfilling, it is difficult to reposition the tree. 6. Fill the hole gently but firmly. Fill the hole about one-third full and gently but firmly pack the soil around the base of the root ball. Then, if the root ball is wrapped, cut and remove any fabric, plastic, string, and wire from around the trunk and root ball to facilitate growth (see diagram). Be careful not to damage the trunk or roots in the process. [new_tree_plant.rvsd.jpg] Fill the remainder of the hole, taking care to firmly pack soil to eliminate air pockets that may cause roots to dry out. To avoid this problem, add the soil a few inches at a time and settle with water. Continue this process until the hole is filled and the tree is firmly planted. It is not recommended to apply fertilizer at the time of planting. 7. Stake the tree, if necessary. If the tree is grown and dug properly at the nursery, staking for support will not be necessary in most home landscape situations. Studies have shown that trees establish more quickly and develop stronger trunk and root systems if they are not staked at the time of planting. However, protective staking may be required on sites where lawn mower damage, vandalism, or windy conditions are concerns. If staking is necessary for support, there are three methods to choose among: staking, guying, and ball stabilizing. One of the most common methods is staking. With this method, two stakes used in conjunction with a wide, flexible tie material on the lower half of the tree will hold the tree upright, provide flexibility, and minimize injury to the trunk (see diagram). Remove support staking and ties after the first year of growth. 8. Mulch the base of the tree. Mulch is simply organic matter applied to the area at the base of the tree. It acts as a blanket to hold moisture, it moderates soil temperature extremes, and it reduces competition from grass and weeds. Some good choices are leaf litter, pine straw, shredded bark, peat moss, or composted wood chips. A 2- to 4-inch layer is ideal. More than 4 inches may cause a problem with oxygen and moisture levels. When placing mulch, be sure that the actual trunk of the tree is not covered. Doing so may cause decay of the living bark at the base of the tree. A mulch-free area, 1 to 2 inches wide at the base of the tree, is sufficient to avoid moist bark conditions and prevent decay. 9. Provide follow-up care. Keep the soil moist but not soaked; overwatering causes leaves to turn yellow or fall off. Water trees at least once a week, barring rain, and more frequently during hot weather. When the soil is dry below the surface of the mulch, it is time to water. Continue until mid-fall, tapering off for lower temperatures that require less-frequent watering. Other follow-up care may include minor pruning of branches damaged during the planting process. Prune sparingly immediately after planting and wait to begin necessary corrective pruning until after a full season of growth in the new location. After you have completed these nine simple steps, further routine care and favorable weather conditions will ensure that your new tree or shrub will grow and thrive. A valuable asset to any landscape, trees provide a long-lasting source of beauty and enjoyment for people of all ages. When questions arise about the care of your tree, be sure to consult your local ISA Certified Arborist or a tree care or garden center professional for assistance. The PHC Alternative Maintaining mature landscapes is a complicated undertaking. You may wish to consider a professional Plant Health Care (PHC) maintenance program, which is now available from many landscape care companies. A PHC program is designed to maintain plant vigor and should initially include inspections to detect and treat any existing problems that could be damaging or fatal. Thereafter, regular inspections and preventive maintenance will ensure plant health and beauty. E-mail inquiries: isa@isa-arbor.com (c) 1998, 2004 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED JULY 2005 Developed by the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), a non-profit organization supporting tree care research around the world and is dedicated to the care and preservation of shade and ornamental trees. For further information, contact: ISA, P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826-3129, USA. E-mail inquires: isa@isa-arbor.com © 2007 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED SEPTEMBER 2005 News What is an Arborist and How Can You Find One? From Planet Green a Discovery Company MORE >> Green Parking II: Putting Parking Lots to Work Green parking lots are defined as those that are designed to do environmental work. Parking lots should be designed to reduce the use of energy, improve environmental quality and to ensure more healthy conditions for people. Further, parking lots should be planned and designed to reflect regional landscape types. Plant materials and other materials of construction must be used in ways that will support this objective. MORE >> NADF Hardiness Zone Map Find out the right tree to plant where you live MORE >> Hot Topics "Hot Topic" press releases fro the USDA newsroom ranging from current pest alerts for specific regions of the United States to new trends in disease prevention and tree and plant care. MORE >> Don't Move Firewood! [dmf-logo-281-px.jpg] Camping Season is fast approaching. Please remember to not transport firewood. Tree-killing insects and diseases can lurk in firewood. These insects and diseases can't move far on their own, but when people move firewood they can jump hundreds of miles. New infestations destroy our forests, property values, and cost huge sums of money to control. MORE >> National Tree Benefits Calculator Make a simple estimation of the benefits individual street-side trees provide. With inputs of location, species and tree size, users will get an understanding of the environmental and economic value trees provide on an annual basis. For more detailed information on urban and community forest assessments, visit the i-Tree website. MORE >> National Register of Big Trees Big trees are symbols of all the good work trees do for the quality of the environment-and our quality of life. MORE >> [leaf_red_round.gif] "The mighty oak was once a little nut that firmly stood its ground." Resources New Tree Planting Brochure Available through the ISA Web store Planting and Pruning Education An educational DVD for homeowner associations, government entities, libraries, or realtors with demonstrations on proper planting and pruning. Available for purchase online at Rocky Mountain ISA Planting With a Purpose Knowing when, what, where, and how to plant is essential to a tree's life span. And if you want trees in your yard to be assets that continually appreciate in value, keep these important tips from the International Society of Arboriculture in mind before, during, and after planting a tree.MORE >> © International Society of Arboriculture 2009 P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826 Email comments & questions to isa@isa-arbor.com #prev next The Plant Cell Skip to main page content * HOME * ABOUT * SUBMIT * SUBSCRIPTIONS * ADVERTISE * ARCHIVE * CONTACT US Quick Search [advanced] Author: ____________________ (e.g. Smith, JS) Keyword(s): ____________________ Year: ____________________ Vol: ____________________ Page: ____________________ Go User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Sign In Sign In * Submit to JIPB Today, Free! « Previous Table of Contents Next Article » * © 1999 American Society of Plant Physiologists Plant Vacuoles 1. Francis Marty1 1. Laboratoire de phytoBiologie Cellulaire, UPR ES 469, Université de Bourgogne, BP47 870, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France 1. ↵1 E-mail fmarty{at}u-bourgogne.fr; fax 33-3-80-39-62-87. Next Section INTRODUCTION The vacuoles of plant cells are multifunctional organelles that are central to cellular strategies of plant development. They share some of their basic properties with the vacuoles of algae and yeast and the lysosomes of animal cells. They are lytic compartments, function as reservoirs for ions and metabolites, including pigments, and are crucial to processes of detoxification and general cell homeostasis. They are involved in cellular responses to environmental and biotic factors that provoke stress. In the vegetative organs of the plant, they act in combination with the cell wall to generate turgor, the driving force for hydraulic stiffness and growth. In seeds and specialized storage tissues, they serve as sites for storing reserve proteins and soluble carbohydrates. In this way, vacuoles serve physical and metabolic functions that are essential to plant life. Plant cell vacuoles were discovered with the early microscope and, as indicated in the etymology of the word, originally defined as a cell space empty of cytoplasmic matter. Technical progress has variously altered the operating definition of the plant vacuole over time. Today, definitions continue to be colored by the tools and concepts brought to bear in any given study. Indeed, the combination of microscopy, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology is fundamental to research into the plant vacuole. In this review, vacuoles are provisionally defined as the intracellular compartments that arise as a terminal product of the secretory pathway in plant cells. They are ontogenetically and functionally linked with other components of the vacuolar apparatus (i.e., vacuoles and those membranous bodies that are either committed to becoming vacuolar or have immediately completed a vacuolar function). Experimental evidence suggests that material within the vacuolar system in plants derives confluently from both an intracellular biosynthetic pathway and a coordinated endocytotic pathway. The biogenetic pathways include (1) sorting of proteins destined for the vacuole away from those to be delivered to the cell surface after transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway; (2) endocytosis of materials from the plasma membrane; (3) autophagy pathways for vacuole formation; and (4) direct cytoplasm-to-vacuole delivery. Ultimately, sorting and targeting mechanisms ensure that specific proteins are faithfully assigned to conduct the vacuolar functions. The reader is referred to other contributions to this issue (i.e., Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999) and to previous reviews (Herman, 1994; Okita and Rogers, 1996; Bassham and Raikhel, 1997; Marty, 1997; Robinson and Hinz, 1997; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998; Herman and Larkins, 1999) for detailed information on specific aspects of vacuole biology. Previous SectionNext Section THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES Plant cell vacuoles are widely diverse in form, size, content, and functional dynamics, and a single cell may contain more than one kind of vacuole. Although major morphological differences were recorded by the very first microscopists, it has been commonly assumed that all vacuoles have the same origin and belong to a common group. However, with improvements in cell fractionation and biochemical analyses as well as in the use of new molecular probes, it has become possible to characterize specialized vacuolar compartments in the cells from a variety of tissues (Hoh et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997; Swanson et al., 1998; Webb, 1999, in this issue). In most cells from the vegetative tissues of the plant body, the central vacuole occupies much of the volume and is essential for much of the physiology of the organism. Among the many functions of this organelle are turgor maintenance, protoplasmic homeostasis, storage of metabolic products, sequestration of xenobiotics, and digestion of cytoplasmic constituents. In regard to the latter function, vacuoles are acidic and contain hydrolytic enzymes analogous to the lysosomal enzymes of animal cells. The membrane, or tonoplast, of such vacuoles contains the vegetative-specific aquaporin γ-TIP (for tonoplast intrinsic protein; Höfte et al., 1992; Marty-Mazars et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Barrieu et al., 1998; see below). In some cell types, defense or signal compounds are stored in the vacuole, particularly within specialized cells located in strategically favorable tissues such as the leaf epidermis. As early as last century, it was observed that many pigments (e.g., anthocyanins) are localized in the vacuoles of epidermal cells from flowers, leaves, and stems. Recent findings suggest that the membranes of such specialized vacuoles contain specific ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters (Rea et al., 1998). In contrast, reserve tissues of seeds and fruit contain vacuoles specialized in the storage of proteins (Okita and Rogers, 1996; Müntz, 1998; see Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). The membrane of the protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) contains the seed-specific aquaporin α-TIP (Höfte et al., 1992; Paris et al., 1996; Swanson et al., 1998; see below). Storage proteins are also synthesized and accumulated in specialized vegetative cells in response to wounding and to developmental switches (Maeshima et al., 1985; Sonnewald et al., 1989; Staswick, 1990; Herman, 1994; Jauh et al., 1998). Distinctively, the membrane of the vegetative storage vacuoles contains the aquaporin ∂-TIP (Jauh et al., 1998; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998). In the endosperm of cereal grains, proteins accumulate in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–derived organelles of vacuole-like size (see below). A few recent studies show that distinct vacuoles may simultaneously function in the same cell. Two separate vacuolar compartments, defined by α-TIP and γ-TIP, occur together in the root tip cells of barley and pea seedlings, mature tobacco plants, as well as in the plumule cells of pea seedlings (Paris et al., 1996). Barley lectin in root tip cells is found within α-TIP–positive vacuoles but not in γ-TIP–positive vacuoles, whereas the barley acid cysteine protease, aleurain, is specifically contained within γ-TIP–positive vacuoles but is absent from α-TIP–positive vacuoles. Thus, α-TIP defines a storage vacuole in which proteins are protected against degradative enzymes, whereas γ-TIP defines a separate, acidic, lytic vacuole. As cells develop large vacuoles, these two compartments appear to merge because the marker membrane antigens, α-TIP and γ-TIP, colocalize to the same membrane, at least in certain regions of the vacuolar compartments (Paris et al., 1996). Two distinct vacuole types are similarly found in living protoplasts of barley aleurone (Swanson et al., 1998). In addition to PSVs, aleurone cells contain a second type of lytic organelle, designated as secondary vacuoles by the authors of this study. Although PSVs and secondary vacuoles are lytic organelles with acidic contents, it was suggested that the secondary vacuoles, which have many features typical of plant vacuoles, function as lysosomes and could be involved in the programmed death of aleurone cells (Swanson et al., 1998). Another example of the versatility of vacuoles comes from investigations of the motor cells of the pulvini from Mimosa pudica (Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997). The vacuole that occurs in the immature (nonreactive) motor cell is located near the nucleus, contains large amounts of tannins, and is believed to act as a Ca^2+ store. The “aqueous” vacuole that is additionally found in mature motor cells does not contain tannins, is much larger than the tannin-containing vacuole, and occupies a central position in mature cells. The changes in cell volume that are responsible for pulvini-mediated leaf movement result from massive water fluxes mainly across the membrane of the larger, aqueous vacuole, on which the γ-TIP aquaporin and the vacuolar-type H ^+-translocating ATPase (V-ATPase) are detected almost exclusively (for a review of membrane ATPases, see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Both vacuoles change shape to effect cell shrinkage. The tannin-containing vacuole forms interconnected tubules, whereas the aqueous vacuole develops membrane wrinkles. In any case, the tannin vacuole and the aqueous vacuole do not merge but rather coexist within the mature motor cell. Additionally, because vacuoles are highly dynamic organelles, often capable of transforming in terms of both form and function, several “generations” of vacuole may be found within a given cell. In the cells of developing pea cotyledons, for instance, two categories of vacuole are reported: a declining, vegetative γ-TIP–associated vacuole; and a newly formed, α-TIP–associated storage vacuole (Hoh et al., 1995). Moreover, in suspension-cultured cells subjected to sucrose starvation, protein degradation is supported by numerous active autophagic vacuoles that are present together with the large, more mature central vacuole (Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). After completion of autophagic digestion, the small vacuoles are subsequently incorporated into the central vacuole. However, when intracellular digestion is inhibited, autophagic vacuoles containing undigested substrates remain in the cytoplasm as residual bodies, apart from the large central vacuole. The diversity of function and form outlined in the above examples illustrates that the cytological definition of vacuoles is likely to cover several biochemically and physiologically distinct entities. Vacuoles, as dynamic organelles, can thus be viewed in the right perspective only if their dynamic nature itself is understood. In several instances, entities that may be variously defined according to different morphological, biochemical, and physical criteria may not necessarily correspond to distinct physiological units. Previous SectionNext Section BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES Until recently, our knowledge of the biosynthesis and maintenance of vacuoles was based largely on morphological observations. Technological breakthroughs over the past few years have advanced our understanding of vacuolar biogenesis to a more detailed molecular level. Resident vacuolar proteins as well as proteins destined for degradation are delivered to the vacuole via the secretory pathway, which includes the biosynthetic, autophagic, and endocytotic transport routes that are presented in Figure 1. The basic mechanisms that organize these routes in eukaryotes are highly conserved across phyla (see Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Early Secretory Pathway In plant cells, as in animal cells and yeast, anterograde transport of newly synthesized soluble as well as membrane proteins through the vacuolar pathway begins at the ER. Most soluble proteins destined for the vacuole are synthesized as precursors with a transient N-terminal signal peptide by membrane-bound polysomes. The nascent precursor form is efficiently targeted to the ER lumen. After their cotranslational translocation across the ER membrane, the secretory proteins are folded and subjected to early post-translational modifications. ER-resident proteins, such as the lumenal binding protein BiP (Denecke et al., 1991), assist newly synthesized polypeptides in acquiring their correct conformation. Proteins that fail to attain the correct three-dimensional structure are eventually degraded by a mechanism that does not involve the Golgi complex–mediated route to the vacuole. Alternatively, some proteins that are not properly folded in the ER are delivered back to the cytosol by reverse translocation across the ER (Pedrazzini et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998; see Vitale and Denecke, 1999, in this issue). Figure 1. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 1. A Working Model for Transport Pathways in the Vacuolar Apparatus. Seven basic pathways are used for the biogenesis, maintenance, and supplying of vacuoles. Pathway 1: entry and transport in the early secretory pathway (from ER to late Golgi compartments). Pathway 2: sorting of vacuolar proteins in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) to a pre/provacuolar compartment (PVC) via an early biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 3: transport from PVC to vacuole via the late biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 4: transport from early secretory steps (ER to Golgi complex; pathway 1) to the vacuole via an alternative route with possible material accretion from Golgi (indicated by the asterisk). Pathway 5: endocytotic pathway from the cell surface to the vacuole via endosomes. Pathway 6: cytoplasm to vacuole through autophagy by degradative or biosynthetic pathways. Pathway 7: transport of ions and solutes across the tonoplast. AV, autophagic vacuole; E, early endosome; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; PVC, pre/provacuolar compartment; TGN, trans-Golgi network. Secretory proteins that are inserted into or translocated across the ER membrane can contain sorting signals required for their targeting to and/or retention in almost any of the compartments along the secretory pathway. For some proteins, the target organelle is the ER itself, and these proteins are not transported further. All other proteins competent for transport along the secretory pathway are carried to the Golgi complex via a still elusive vesiculo-tubular intermediate compartment. Indeed, tubular continuities have been shown to form direct linkages between the ER and the Golgi complex. Consequently, tubular transport might occur in a direction tangential, rather than perpendicular, to the Golgi stacks, in a manner that differs, therefore, from that usually assumed to operate in animal and fungal cells. The Golgi complex has a pivotal role in the secretory pathway. In plant cells, it consists of a set of dispersed units (dictyosomes) surrounded by a proteinaceous matrix. Like its counterpart in animal cells, each morphological Golgi unit in the plant cell includes a Golgi stack and a trans-Golgi network (TGN; Marty, 1978; Staehelin and Moore, 1995; Dupree and Sherrier, 1998). The Golgi stacks consist of three discrete groups of cisternae (cis, medial, and trans) that can be defined by their distinct morphologies and by their cytochemical and biochemical properties. Covalent and conformational modifications of newly synthesized secretory proteins, which begin in the ER, are continued in the Golgi complex and post-Golgi compartments. As they are being processed, vacuolar proteins transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway together with proteins that are destined to be exported into the extracellular medium or delivered to the plasma membrane. Late Secretory Pathway—From TGN to Prevacuoles The TGN is a major branch point in the secretory pathway and is the site of multiple sorting events that separate proteins destined for exocytotic egress from those progressing to the vacuole. The TGN varies in size according to the specific function of the cell. Under the hypothesis that biogenetic and trafficking processes are modulated in response to specific cell requirements, comprehensive morphological studies have been performed in actively vacuolating cells. The processes involved in the formation of vacuoles and their partitioning during mitosis, for example, are conveniently studied in the differentiating cells of the root meristem. Figure 2 shows the partitioning of mitotic provacuole clusters into daughter cells. In cells in which new vacuoles are being formed, the TGN consists of a twisted, polygonal meshwork of smooth-surfaced anastomosing tubules extending from a central disk-shaped cisternal cavity facing the Golgi stack. Via lateral linkages, a single TGN might be shared by several Golgi units. Clathrin-coated blebs and local swellings containing internal vesicles can be observed along the tubules, and numerous vesicles budding from the TGN mediate the transport of biomolecules to the vacuole. Figure 2. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 2. Partitioning of the Vacuolar Apparatus during Mitosis. Distribution of mitotic provacuole clusters in vacuolating cells from the root meristem of horseradish. The vacuolar apparatus was selectively labeled by the zinc iodide–osmium reaction (see Marty, 1978). The specimen (3 μm thick) was examined without counterstain at 2.5 MV with a very high voltage (3 MV) electron microscope. Images were processed using Photoshop software (Adobe, San Jose, CA). Provacuoles are shown in yellow, Golgi complexes in red, and mitochondria and plastids in blue. The Prevacuolar Compartment The TGN-derived vesicles on the vacuolar pathway form an intermediate compartment between the late trans-Golgi sorting site and the vacuole. These vesicles have been collectively referred to as provacuoles because they act ontogenetically as the immediate progenitors of the vacuole. They also mediate transport between the ER/Golgi complex and the vacuole and thus take functional precedence in the path to the vacuole. On account of this succession, they can be said to act as a physiological prevacuolar compartment (PVC) for cargo proteins en route to the vacuole (Marty, 1978, 1997). Nascent provacuoles, budding from nodes of the TGN meshwork, have an average diameter (∼100 nm) distinctly larger than the diameter of the TGN tubules (∼15 nm). Rather quickly, the vesicular provacuoles extend into tubular provacuoles having roughly the same bore (100 nm) as the vesicles from which they derive. Their lumen is filled with vesicles that are presumably derived from microinvagination of their membranes (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The extensive tubular provacuoles in vacuolating cells may be an enhanced version of the ubiquitous PVC described in mammalian cells and yeast (Piper et al., 1995). The membrane proliferation results from a dynamic effect that would occur either if membrane flow out of the provacuole were slowed down or if the membrane input from the TGN and/or the endocytotic tributary were increased. Furthermore, the provacuolar compartment might be a critical junction in post-Golgi trafficking at which the endocytotic and vacuolar biogenetic pathways converge. Autophagy and Vacuolation As revealed by three-dimensional high-voltage electron microscopy, the formation of autophagic vacuoles begins with a striking sequence of provacuole tubulation that proceeds to enclose discrete volumes of cytoplasmic material (Marty, 1978, 1997). Figure 3 represents this sequence of events, whereby tubular provacuoles produce digitate extensions that form cagelike traps so as to sequester portions of cytoplasm. Adjacent bars of the cage then fuse in a zipperlike fashion and, through transient palmar connections, build a continuous and tight cavity around the segregated portion of cytoplasm. Sections through these ball-shaped structures are recognized as early autophagosomes (i.e., a cytoplasmic area encircled by a narrow ringlike cavity bounded by inner and outer membranes). Cytochemical studies show that the TGN, provacuoles, and autophagosomes are acidic and contain lysosomal acid hydrolases. The cytoplasm in the autophagosome is degraded after it has been totally closed off. It is speculated that the digestive enzymes are released from the surrounding cavity as the inner boundary membrane deteriorates. Upon completion of the digestive process, a typical vacuole is formed. The outer membrane, which remains impermeable to hydrolytic enzymes, confines digestive activities within the forming vacuole and becomes the tonoplast. Newly formed vacuoles can then fuse together to produce a few large vacuoles. Ultimately, facilitated transport of water through the tonoplast, mediated by γ-TIP aquaporins, results in rapid vacuole enlargement (Ludevid et al., 1992; Maurel, 1997). Figure 3. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 3. Autophagic Activity of Provacuoles. Sequential stages of cytoplasmic confinement by provacuoles involved in cellular autophagy. Tubular provacuoles (1 and 2) form cagelike traps (2 to 4) enclosing portions of cytoplasm of a cell from the root meristem of Euphorbia characias. Adjacent bars of the cages then fuse to build a continuous and tight envelope (central structure [4]) around segregated portions of cytoplasm. Samples were processed as described in the legend to Figure 2. Starvation-Induced Autophagy In response to starvation, autophagy is reinitiated in cells that are already vacuolated. The autophagic pathway is activated, for example, after sucrose deprivation of suspension-cultured cells (Chen et al., 1994; Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). Portions of peripheral cytoplasm are first sequestered in double membrane–bounded envelopes (through the process described above) and then eventually digested. The small vacuoles, thus newly formed in the cytoplasm, are finally incorporated into the central vacuole. It has been shown that the induction of cellular autophagy is controlled by the supply of mitochondria with respiratory substrate and not by the decrease in the concentration of sucrose and hexose phosphates (Aubert et al., 1996). Formation of autophagic vacuoles has been correlated with an increase in the rates of intracellular proteolysis (Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996) and a massive breakdown of membrane polar lipids (Aubert et al., 1996). As a degradative pathway, autophagy plays a central role in protein and organelle turnover. It has been implicated in vacuolation and cell differentiation, and it is critical for survival during stress conditions such as nutrient deprivation. It can also be exploited for biosynthetic purposes as a cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway, as occurs in yeast, and with regard to supplying PSVs (see below). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS Specialized cells in seeds and vegetative organs accumulate proteins that function primarily as reserves of amino acids. The most common storage proteins are the globulins, which are found in embryos, and the prolamins, which are unique to cereal endosperms. Most storage proteins, including globulins and some prolamins, have been shown to be transported to vacuoles via the Golgi complex (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Chrispeels, 1991; see also Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). However, studies on the assembly and transport of seed storage proteins in legumes and cereals have shown that reserve proteins can be sorted at diverse exit sites along the vacuolar pathway. As a result, proteins are stored in a variety of compartments specific to the plant species, tissue, stage of cell differentiation, and protein category. Golgi-Dependent and Golgi-Independent Routes to PSVs Pulse-labeling experiments, morphological and immunocytochemical studies, and biochemical analyses have provided compelling evidence for a Golgi-mediated route to the PSV in legumes and other dicots. Storage proteins are synthesized as precursors that are cotranslationally transferred into the lumen of the rough ER and transported via the Golgi apparatus into specialized vacuoles where proteolytic processing is usually needed to promote their stable storage. Whereas protein storage deposits are seldom observed in the lumen of the rough ER at the early stage of the transport pathway, condensed storage proteins are commonly detected in smooth-surfaced vesicles, ∼100 nm in diameter, in association with the cis-, medial-, or trans-cisternae of the Golgi complex (Hohl et al., 1996). Furthermore, three different types of vesicle are commonly found in close proximity to the Golgi area: vesicles that carry storage proteins, exocytotic vesicles containing cell wall polymers, and clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs). The existence of two different exit sites for vacuolar proteins at the Golgi complex and the utilization of “alternative” secretory vesicles suggest further variations to vacuole function (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). According to current views, vesicles containing storage proteins originate at the cis-Golgi cisternae, and proteins undergo maturation processes as they progress through the Golgi stacks up to the TGN, where they are sorted to the storage vacuoles (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). At the exit site, CCVs were found to bud off from the vesicles containing storage proteins. Subsequently, only the clathrin-free vesicles, but not the CCVs, are involved in the transport of soluble storage proteins to the vacuole. A different pathway recently has been suggested in cells from maturing seeds of pumpkin and castor bean (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998). In these cells, proglobulin and pro2S albumin were shown to be transferred from the rough ER to the PSV via large vesicles (200 to 400 nm in diameter). These large precursor-accumulating vesicles are distinct from the Golgi-derived vesicles but similar to the late protein bodies described in pea cotyledons (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). It was suggested that the core of storage proproteins contained in these large vesicles might derive directly from protein aggregates that are formed in the ER (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998); they accumulate proprotein precursors and ER-resident proteins such as BiP but not mature products. In maturing pumpkin cotyledons, where the vast majority of storage proteins are not glycosylated, the precursor-accumulating vesicles bypass the Golgi apparatus such that their transport is not inhibited by the carboxylic ionophore monensin. In contrast to pumpkin seeds, castor bean seeds contain storage glycoproteins with complex glycans. Their processing occurs in the Golgi complex. The Golgi-processed glycoproteins are subsequently incorporated into the ER-derived precursor-accumulating vesicles at the periphery of the core aggregates. Storage glycoproteins, together with other storage proteins, are ultimately transported by the mature vesicle as far as the PSV. However, the final steps of the transport pathway to the storage vacuole are still unknown. It was suggested that the incorporation of the precursors into PSVs could occur by membrane fusion or by autophagic engulfment of the vesicle into the vacuole. Autophagy and PSVs Developing legume cotyledons comprise a model system to study both the ontogenesis of the PSV and the intracellular transport of vacuolar reserve proteins (Chrispeels, 1991). In the parenchyma cells of maturing legume cotyledons, the very few large vegetative vacuoles become replaced by numerous PSVs. Ultrastructural studies indicate that the preexisting vegetative vacuoles of immature parenchyma cells are trapped by a newly developing smooth tubulo-cisternal membrane system that already contains storage proteins (Craig, 1986; Hoh et al., 1995). However, the origin of this new membrane system is not clearly understood. The trapped vegetative vacuoles disappear as the novel storage vacuoles gradually fill up with storage proteins (Hoh et al., 1995). During the process, the storage proteins aggregate as individual clumps against the tonoplast and cause it to protrude into the cytoplasm. By a budding process, the protruding protein masses, still surrounded by the tonoplast, become independent small storage vacuoles (membrane-bounded “protein bodies” [PBs]) dispersed in the cytoplasm. At later stages of cotyledon maturation, the budding process stops, and the main original storage vacuole, which continues to accumulate reserve proteins, transforms into a distinct category of large storage vacuole. A third type of storage protein reservoir is formed in the cells at the middle to late stages of seed maturation, before storage protein synthesis ceases. Storage proteins accumulate in smooth-surfaced cisternae and channels with terminal dilations. These swellings may detach and become independent spherical bodies without cisternal connections. Finally, in germinating legume seedlings, PSVs are replaced by a vegetative vacuole through yet another type of developmentally regulated sequestration and disposal of organelles. Local invaginations of the tonoplast and engulfment of cytoplasmic fragments, subsequently degraded in the PSV, have been described (Herman et al., 1981; Melroy and Herman, 1991). Storage Proteins in Cereals Cereal grains differ from legume seeds by accumulating the alcohol-soluble prolamins as storage proteins in endosperm cells (Shewry et al., 1995). Cereal prolamins, like legume globulins, are cotranslationally loaded into the lumen of the ER. In many cereals, including maize, rice, and sorghum, prolamins form dense, insoluble accretions, which are retained within the lumen of the ER and, as in the case of the legumes, termed PBs (Lending et al., 1988; Geli et al., 1994). In developing endosperm cells, PBs become enlarged as newly synthesized prolamins are acquired and assembled with the aid of protein disulfide isomerase and molecular chaperones such as BiP (Lending and Larkins, 1989; Boston et al., 1991; Li and Larkins, 1996). Prolamins of other cereals, including wheat, barley, and oat, on the other hand, accumulate in vacuoles together with globulins (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Levanony et al., 1992). Globulins are transported along the anterograde pathway via the Golgi complex to the vacuolar compartment, whereas prolamin PBs are incorporated into the vacuole by an autophagic process (Levanony et al., 1992). Several cytological observations have suggested that rather similar autophagic mechanisms might operate when transgenes encoding storage proteins from cereals are expressed in vegetative tobacco cells (Coleman et al., 1996; Bagga et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998). The transgene products form accretions in the ER, as in many storage cells in cereals, but the ER membrane–bounded PBs are subsequently captured by an autophagic process and delivered to the vegetative vacuole, where they are eventually proteolytically degraded. Interestingly, somewhat similar steps could be detected during the transport of storage proteins to storage vacuoles by large precursor-accumulating vesicles in normally developing cells (Levanony et al., 1992; Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998; see above). These results suggest that the cellular machinery of autophagy can be used for delivering cytosolic proteins and early membrane-bounded PBs to the vacuole, thus defining a biosynthetic cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway as occurs in yeast. The ontogeny of the compartments specialized in protein storage is thus diverse, and not all stores are (ontogenetically) homologous, although all belong to the vacuolar apparatus of plant cells. For a more detailed discussion of PSVs, see Herman and Larkins (1999), in this issue. Previous SectionNext Section ENDOCYTOSIS Endocytosis is defined as the uptake of extracellular and plasma membrane materials from the cell surface into the cell. Endocytosis has been characterized morphologically in plant cells in which both fluid-phase uptake and receptor-mediated internalizations have been visualized (reviewed in Low and Chandra, 1994; Marty, 1997; see also Battey et al., 1999, in this issue). Two distinct routes of internalization by clathrin-mediated endocytosis have been suggested to operate in plant cells: (1) from the plasma membrane to an endosomal compartment, including the partially coated reticulum, multivesicular bodies, TGN, and the PVC; and (2) from the plasma membrane to the PVC and the vacuoles (Low and Chandra, 1994). Novel intermediary structures arising from plasma membrane internalization have also been described as part of a compensatory recycling mechanism in actively secreting cells (Staehelin and Chapman, 1987). Rapid retrieval of plasma membrane to the cell interior, together with a fluid phase internalization of extracellular material, occurs in water-stressed cells (Steponkus, 1991; Oparka et al., 1993; Barrieu et al., 1999). Morphological studies of vacuolating cells by electron microscopy suggest that the endocytotic and biosynthetic vacuolar pathways converge at the provacuolar compartment before nascent autophagic vacuoles are formed (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The convergence point(s) between these pathways in already vacuolated cells is unknown, but it seems reasonable to hypothesize that the juncture could be at the prevacuolar compartment. Endocytotic vesicles and endosomes belong to the vacuolar apparatus, but their direct contribution to the formation of the vacuole remains uncertain. Whereas the vesicle-mediated internalization of plasma membrane has been documented in plant cells, the routes involved need to be precisely mapped by reliable tracers. A potential candidate is Tlg1p, a protein functionally homologous to the t-SNARE (see below) localized on a putative early endosome in yeast. Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS Vacuolar soluble proteins and membrane proteins alike travel through the early stages of the secretory pathway. Most probably, they are sorted away from proteins destined for delivery to the cell surface at the exit of the Golgi complex (see, e.g., Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Soluble proteins therefore require a sorting signal to tag them for vacuolar delivery after their egress from the Golgi complex; indeed, in the absence of such informational tags, they are secreted to the extracellular space. Three types of vacuolar targeting signals have been described (Chrispeels and Raikhel, 1992). Some vacuolar proteins (e.g., sporamin and aleurain) contain an N-terminal propeptide (NTPP) as a targeting determinant; others (e.g., barley lectin, phaseolin, tobacco chitinase, and Brazil nut 2S albumin) contain a C-terminal propeptide (CTPP), whereas some vacuolar proteins (e.g., phytohemagglutinin and legumin) contain a targeting signal in an exposed region of the mature protein. NTPP Signals The targeting determinants characterized in NTPPs from the barley cysteine protease aleurain (Holwerda et al., 1992) and from sweet potato sporamin (Nakamura et al., 1993) contain a conserved Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg amino acid sequence. This motif in the NTPP is necessary and sufficient for the sorting of the sporamin precursor to the vacuole (Nakamura et al., 1993; Matsuoka et al., 1995). Sporamin is delivered to the sink vacuole in cells from the tuberous roots of the sweet potato (Maeshima et al., 1985), whereas aleurain is sorted to a lytic compartment distinct from the PSV (Paris et al., 1996). CTPP Signals By contrast to NTPP signals, a vacuolar sorting consensus sequence has not been identified in CTPP targeting domains. Nevertheless, the CTPP was shown to be necessary and sufficient for the targeting of barley lectin to the vacuole (Bednarek and Raikhel, 1991; Matsuoka et al., 1995). The N-linked glycan of the CTPP in barley lectin is not necessary for sorting, although it modulates the rate of processing of the propeptide. Hydrophobic residues in the CTPP are important for the targeting of barley lectin (Dombrowski et al., 1993). Similar mutagenesis analyses have been performed to characterize the targeting signal of tobacco chitinase (Neuhaus et al., 1994). CTPPs from vacuolar proteins differ in length, and it was recently shown that a short CTPP from phaseolin contains information necessary for interactions with the vacuolar sorting machinery in a saturable manner (Frigerio et al., 1998). The barley lectin, phaseolin, and Brazil nut 2S albumin accumulate in PSVs, whereas tobacco chitinase is delivered to vacuoles of vegetative cells. Results indicate that more than one sorting mechanism might exploit the CTPP targeting signal and that transport of CTPP-containing proteins from the Golgi complex to the vacuoles involves more than one pathway (Matsuoka et al., 1995; Frigerio et al., 1998). Both CTPP- and NTPP-mediated vacuolar delivery also involve alternative structures and mechanisms, although NTPP and CTPP were found to be functionally interchangeable in directing proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1995). Internal Signals Other plant vacuolar proteins are synthesized without a cleavable vacuolar-targeting signal. Studies on phytohemagglutinin (PHA) from Phaseolus vulgaris (Tague et al., 1990) and legumin from Vicia faba (Saalbach et al., 1991) have demonstrated targeting information in exposed regions of the mature proteins, which are deposited in the PSVs of the reserve parenchyma cells of cotyledons. Strikingly, soluble proteins, such as PHA, and proteinase inhibitors, which are usually vacuolar, occasionally have been detected in the extracellular matrix, suggesting that the vacuolar targeting signals might not be recognized in all cells (Kjemtrup et al., 1995). Moreover, recent work on suspension-cultured cells showed that some soluble, fully processed, vacuolar hydrolases can be excreted into the medium under hormonal control. The exocytotic pathway for these “vacuolar” proteins would lead from either the vacuole or the PVC situated downstream of the last processing step (Kunze et al., 1998). Although short amino acid sequences of plant vacuolar proteins are sufficient to sort nonvacuolar proteins to the vacuole in yeast (Tague et al., 1990), plant proteins are sorted to the yeast vacuole by signals different from those recognized by plants, suggesting that the transport machinery is at least partially different between yeast and plants (Gal and Raikhel, 1994). Vacuolar membrane and intravacuolar soluble proteins are targeted to vacuoles by different mechanisms. Pulse–chase experiments and pharmacological studies on protoplasts from transgenic tobacco plants suggest that soluble proteins such as PHA and integral membrane proteins such as α-TIP reach the same destination by traveling through different paths (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). Signals in TIPs? Transport pathways for integral membrane proteins of the tonoplast have been investigated (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992; Jiang and Rogers, 1998). The vacuolar membrane α-TIP and γ-TIP are polytopic integral membrane proteins, with six membrane-spanning domains and both N and C termini located in the cytoplasm. In an early analysis of the targeting information contained in α-TIP, it was found that a polypeptide segment comprising the sixth membrane-spanning domain and the adjacent C-terminal, cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP is sufficient to target a nonvacuolar reporter protein to the tonoplast. In addition, the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail was not found necessary for the targeting of α-TIP in the same stably transformed tobacco cells (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992). More recently, the trafficking of a chimeric integral membrane reporter protein was analyzed in tobacco protoplasts (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). It was found that the transmembrane domain of the plant vacuolar sorting receptor BP-80 (see below) directs the reporter protein via the Golgi complex to the prevacuolar compartment, and attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of γ-TIP did not alter this traffic. By contrast, attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP prevented traffic of the reporter protein through the Golgi complex but caused it to be localized to vacuoles. It was thus concluded that there are two separate pathways to vacuoles for membrane proteins: a direct pathway followed by α-TIP from the ER to PSVs, and a separate pathway followed by γ-TIP via the Golgi complex and PVC to the vegetative lytic vacuole (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS Soluble vacuolar proteins are diverted away from the exocytotic pathway through a receptor-mediated process that leads to their delivery to the vacuole. Two independent approaches resulted in the identification of plant vacuolar sorting receptors (Kirsch et al., 1994; Ahmed et al., 1997). It was initially hypothesized that the Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg motif conserved in the NTPP vacuole-targeting determinant of aleurain and sporamin, two unrelated proteins, was likely to be recognized by a sorting receptor (Kirsch et al., 1994). Indeed, a protein of 80 kD, called BP-80, has been affinity purified from a lysate of CCVs from pea. It possesses all the features expected of a vacuolar sorting receptor. It is a type I integral membrane protein that is localized in the Golgi complex and in small vacuolar structures. These vacuolar structures are distinct from both α-TIP and γ-TIP vacuoles but are possibly analogous to prevacuoles. Several homologs have been cloned, and the sequences appear to be highly conserved in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants (Paris et al., 1997). An alternative approach led to the identification of an Arabidopsis receptor-like protein called AtELP (for Arabidopsis thaliana epidermal growth factor–like protein). This second approach was based on the use of known functional motifs present in many of the receptor proteins involved in clathrin-dependent intracellular protein sorting in mammalian and yeast cells (Ahmed et al., 1997). AtELP shares many common features with mammalian and yeast transmembrane cargo receptors. It is capable of in vitro interaction with the proteins of the TGN-specific AP-1 adaptor complex from mammals. It is located at the TGN, in CCVs, and on the PVC in the root cells of Arabidopsis. AtELP is highly homologous to BP-80, suggesting that it also may play a role in targeting proteins to the vacuole (Sanderfoot et al., 1998; see also Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Mechanisms recognizing the C-terminal or internal vacuolar sorting signals of soluble proteins have not been elucidated, and the identification of receptor-mediated pathways for membrane proteins is still in debate (see, e.g., Vitale and Raikhel, 1999). In addition to sorting receptors, other components of the vacuolar targeting machinery are being identified in plants. An interesting example is a V-ATPase activity associated with the Golgi complex, distinct from that of the tonoplast V-ATPase, and which is necessary for the efficient targeting of soluble proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1997; see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Previous SectionNext Section TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS Transport of soluble and membrane proteins in the secretory pathway is known to be mediated by the budding and fusion of transport vesicles (Rothman, 1994) and, in certain cell types or physiological situations, by cisternal progression and direct tubular linkages between different compartments (Pelham, 1998). As an early step in vesicular transport, budding involves coat proteins that assemble from the cytosol. CCVs, COPI and COPII-like vesicles, and “dense” vesicles have been described in plant cells (Robinson et al., 1998; see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Available data indicate that a considerable homology between coat proteins in plant, yeast, and animal cells exists, although we still know little of the molecular organization of transport vesicles in plants. Docking and fusion steps are thought to be mainly regulated by integral membrane receptors, termed SNAREs (for soluble N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) (see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). According to the prevalent model, SNAREs on vesicles (v-SNAREs) interact with cognate SNAREs on the target membranes (t-SNAREs). The soluble proteins NSF (for N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor) and α-SNAP (for soluble NSF attachment protein) then bind the v-SNARE/t-SNARE complex, and a rearrangement triggered by ATP hydrolysis finally promotes membrane fusion. The diversity and specificity of vesicle transport routes correlate with the complexity of traffic effectors, which include Rab proteins, Rab-binding molecules, Ca^2+, and components of the cytoskeleton. Many lines of investigation suggest that the mechanisms of vesicular budding, docking, and fusion are conserved across species and subcellular compartments. A growing number of proteins functionally homologous (orthologs) to the SNAREs characterized in yeast and mammalian cells is being identified in plant cells (Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Initial results show that the sorting mechanism for soluble proteins to the plant vacuole agrees well with the SNARE model. The putative plant vacuolar receptor AtELP (see above) is able to recruit the adaptor complex 1 (AP-1) present at the TGN. As a consequence, the AtELP receptor appears to be included in TGN-derived CCVs. These vesicles carry the vacuolar cargo together with its receptor to the prevacuolar compartment, where the receptor (AtELP) and the prevacuole-specific t-SNARE (AtPEP12p; da Silva Conceição et al., 1997) are colocalized (Sanderfoot et al., 1998). The vacuolar t-SNARE AtVam3p is used downstream in the late vacuolar pathway. However, its function in homotypic (vacuole–vacuole) or heterotypic (prevacuole–vacuole) fusions or in autophagy is still being debated. Compelling microscopic evidence is also suggestive of transient tubular continuities between compartments of the vacuolar pathway in particular cell types or physiological conditions. Indeed, tubular continuities between the ER and the Golgi complex, between cisternae from the same Golgi stack, between TGN units from adjacent Golgi stacks, between the TGN and the pre/provacuolar compartment, and between provacuoles and autophagic vacuoles have been described (see Marty, 1997). Such interconnections are consistent with an intracellular transport by cisternal progression and maturation. Vesicular and nonvesicular transport mechanisms, it should be stressed, are not mutually exclusive. Previous SectionNext Section TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS The vacuole plays an important role in the homeostasis of the plant cell. It is involved in the control of cell volume and cell turgor; the regulation of cytoplasmic ions and pH; the storage of amino acids, sugars, and CO[2]; and the sequestration of toxic ions and xenobiotics. These activities are driven by specific proteins present in the tonoplast and indicated in Figure 4. These functions have been abundantly documented and reviewed (Sze et al., 1992; Rea and Poole, 1993; Barkla and Pantoja, 1996; Leigh, 1997; Maurel, 1997; Wink, 1997; Rea et al., 1998; see also Chrispeels et al., 1999; Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). According to the chemiosmotic model for energy-dependent solute transport, the proton-motive force generated by either the V-ATPase or the H^+-translocating inorganic pyrophosphatase (V-PPase) can be used to drive secondary solute transports. Movement of ions and water down their thermodynamic potentials is achieved by specific ion channels and water channels (aquaporins). The resulting ion, water, and metabolite fluxes across the vacuolar membrane are crucial to the diverse functions of the vacuole in plant cells, such as cell enlargement and plant growth, signal transduction, protoplasmic homeostasis, and regulation of metabolic pathways (Sze et al., 1992). Figure 4. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 4. Model of ABC Transporters, H^+ Primary Pumps, H^+-Coupled Transporters, and Channels in a Simplified Tonoplast. Glutathione S-conjugate (GS-X) and metabolite (M) transport is achieved by an ABC transporter(s). An electrogenic H^+-ATPase (V-type) and an H^+-PPase acidify the vacuole. The proton motive force provides energy for uptake and release of solutes (i.e., cations, anions, and organic solutes, denoted A, B, or C indiscriminately here) across the tonoplast through transporters and channels. Water channels (aquaporins) facilitate the passive exchange of water. Recent studies have demonstrated the existence of a group of organic solute transporters, belonging to the ABC superfamily, that are directly energized by MgATP (Rea et al., 1998). These pumps are competent in the transport of a broad range of substances, including sugars, peptides, alkaloids, and inorganic anions. Belonging to the ABC family, the multidrug resistance–associated proteins (MRPs) identified in plants are considered to participate in the transport of exogenous and endogenous amphipathic anions and glutathionated compounds from the cytoplasm to the vacuole. They function in herbicide detoxification, cell pigmentation, storage of antimicrobial compounds, and alleviation of oxidative damage. A role for plant MRPs is also suspected in channel regulation and transport of heavy metal chelates. Previous SectionNext Section CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES Evolutionary perspectives place vacuoles at a central position in the physiological strategies of plants in their environment. In the vast majority of cells from the plant body, vacuoles provide the true milieu intérieur. They are responsible for the high cell surface–to–protoplasmic volume ratio required for extensive exchanges of material and information between cells and their environment. In cooperation with the cell wall, they create turgor, which is basic to cell hydraulic stiffness and plant growth. In specialized cells, pigment- and allelochemical-accumulating vacuoles serve as mediators of plant–plant, plant–microorganism, and plant–herbivore interactions. In seeds, vacuoles store proteins to be used for anabolism during seedling growth. The diversity of vacuolar functions parallels a diversity in morphology, biochemistry, and biogenesis. A number of different intracellular trafficking pathways have already been mapped and provide a structural framework for present concepts in vacuole physiology. The routes are many and varied, but there are significant overlaps, which suggests that although the vacuolar processes serve specific goals, they are all intimately related. Moreover, any one of the compartments from a given trafficking pathway may function so as to be, kinetically and physiologically speaking, “vacuole-like.” Much additional work is needed to characterize vacuoles and their progenitors more precisely by molecular criteria and to adjust recent molecular findings to a structural framework. Plant genetic screens will be useful to identify and characterize genes encoding plant-specific vacuolar functions. Autophagy, both in the degradative and biosynthetic pathways, arises as a key process in the biogenesis and remodeling of the vacuolar apparatus. It drives the formation of vegetative vacuoles when meristematic cells differentiate, it operates when the vacuolar apparatus switches alternately from vegetative to storage functions, and it is induced by starvation. Many questions are elicited regarding protein trafficking by autophagy. For instance, do autophagic membranes all have the same origin? What triggers the formation, movement, and fusion of the autophagic components? Much has also to be learned about the role of the cytoskeleton in organizing intercompartmental movement of vesicles and shaping vacuoles and their precursors. What are the regulatory mechanisms involved when cells inherit vacuoles from mother cells at mitosis? 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Compartmentation of secondary metabolites and xenobiotics in plant vacuoles. In Advances in Botanical Research, Vol. 25: The Plant Vacuole, Leigh R.A., Sanders D., eds (London: Academic Press), pp. 141–169. Search Google Scholar Teaching Tools Navigate This Article 1. Top 2. INTRODUCTION 3. THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES 4. BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES 5. VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS 6. ENDOCYTOSIS 7. VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS 8. VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS 9. TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS 10. TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS 11. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 12. Acknowledgments 13. REFERENCES 1. doi: 10.1105/tpc.11.4.587 The Plant Cell April 1999 vol. 11 no. 4 587-599 1. » Full Text 2. Full Text (PDF) 3. PPT Slides of All Figures 1. + CELLULAR COMPARTMENTS 1. Email this article to a colleague 2. Alert me when this article is cited 3. Alert me if a correction is posted 4. Similar articles in this journal 5. Similar articles in Web of Science 6. Similar articles in PubMed 7. 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As with all of biology, there are exceptions and you may learn about plant species that are parasites. Plants also have cell walls. In the cells tutorials we explained that all cells have a membrane. Only plants have an additional cell wall made from cellulose. Let's look at photosynthesis. Plants are able to turn sunlight into energy but not directly. Plants are actually able to store energy in some chemical bonds that can be used later. Before we get into details, we'll explain that there are two processes on Earth: Photosynthesis and Respiration. Photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases that energy. It all starts with the Sun. Check out the tutorial on photosynthesis. Images of Plants Learning from Plants Not only do you see plants everywhere in the real world, but they are also all over the scientific world. Scientists use them for studies in genetics. A guy named Gregor Mendel used pea pods and their flowers to come up with some of the first ideas on how traits are passed from one generation of organism to another (genetics). We also use plants for food. Scientists are constantly developing new plants that are more resistant to disease and insects. Scientists also help create plants that grow faster and make more food. 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(c)copyright 1997-2012 Andrew Rader Studios, All rights reserved. Current Page: Biology4Kids.com | Plants | Overview __________________________________________________________________ ** Andrew Rader Studios does not monitor or review the content available at these web sites. They are paid advertisements and neither partners nor recommended web sites. 404: Page not found This error is generated when there was no web page with the name you specified at the web site. Troubleshooting suggestions: Ensure the page you are linking to exists in the correct folder. Check your file name for case sensitivity . Index.htm is not the same as index.htm! Temporarily disable any rewrite rules by renaming your .htaccess file if it exists. Trends in Plant Science * Press Room * Cell Symposia * Jobs * Login * Register * Alerts * Activate Online Access X User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Forgotten User Name or Password? Login Remember me on this computer [ ] ____________________ Search (*) Full Text ( ) Authors Advanced Search * Home * Online Now * Current Issue Archive For Authors Journal Information Change Journal * Aims and Scope * Permissions * Subscriptions * Advertising Information * Instructions for Authors * Presubmission Enquiries * Submit Manuscript * Editorial Enquiries Journals * AJHG * Biophysical Journal * Cancer Cell * Cell * Cell Host & Microbe * Cell Metabolism * Cell Reports * Cell Stem Cell * Chemistry & Biology * Current Biology * Developmental Cell * Immunity * Molecular Cell * Neuron * Stem Cell Reports * Structure Trends in... * Biochemical Sciences * Biotechnology * Cell Biology * Cognitive Sciences * Ecology & Evolution * Endocrinology & Metabolism * Genetics * Immunology * Microbiology * Molecular Medicine * Neurosciences * Parasitology * Pharmacological Sciences * Plant Science [S1360138512X0013X_cov150h.gif] cover popup January, 2013 Volume 18, Issue 1 X cover popup Volume 18, Issue 1 A key plant response to drought is the accumulation of specific sets of metabolites, which act as osmoprotectants, osmolytes, antioxidants and/or stress signals. An emerging question is: How do plants regulate metabolism to balance the ‘competing interests’ between metabolites during stress? Recent research connects primary sulfur metabolism, e.g. sulfate transport in the vasculature, its assimilation in leaves and the recycling of sulfur containing compounds, with the drought stress response. On pages 18–29 Barry J. Pogson and colleagues highlight key steps in sulfur metabolism that play significant roles in drought stress signaling and responses. The authors propose that a complex balancing act is required to coordinate primary and secondary sulfur metabolism during the drought stress response in plants. Cover design by Susanne C. Brink. NEW! Trends in Plant Science Impact Factor: 11.047* * *Source: 2011 Journal Citation Reports©, published by Thomson Reuters Editorial Team * Editor Susanne C. Brink * Executive Editor, General Biology Geoffrey North * Journal Manager Jan Kastelein * Journal Administrators Ria Otten Patrick Scheffmann Advisory Editorial Board * John F. Allen Eduardo Blumwald Jorge J. Casal Jeff Dangl Caroline Dean Richard A. Dixon Alisdair Fernie Wilhelm Gruissem Martin Heil Dirk Inzé Maarten Koornneef Anthony Larkum Ottoline Leyser Cathie Martin Sheila McCormick Sabeeha Merchant Ron Mittler Rebecca Mosher Jane Parker Michael Purugganan Eric Richards Jen Sheen Kazuo Shinozaki Sjef Smeekens Venkatesan Sundaresan Yong-Guan Zhu Stay Connected Facebook Logo Twitter Logo YouTube Logo RSS Feed free article Featured Article CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, and Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Abstract | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data [plant-science;sz=336x280;ord=71164?] Trends in Plant Science in the News Sound-based communication in plants The Conversation University World News Deccan Herald The West Australian The Sydney Morning Herald Plant power: The ultimate way to ‘go green’? ClimateWire U.S.News PysOrg Cell Press Discussions [Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado-108x160.png] [trends-in-ecology-evolution.jpg] Join the discussion on Ecological Neutral Theory; useful model or statement of ignorance? Cell Picture Show Cell Picture Show Plant Biology: They feed, they fight, and they reproduce; in many ways, plants are just like us. Take a peek inside the beautiful—and often complex—lives of plants. Cell Picture Show View more slideshows. Cell Picture Show thanks our sponsor. Recent Trends in Plant Science Special Issue [May2012SpecialIssue.gif] ‘Specificity of plant-enemy interactions’ May 2012 Find here an archive of Trends in Plant Science Special Issues. Presubmission Enquiries | Special Issues | Topic Collections | @TiPSc_news on Twitter | RSS Feeds | Email TOC Alerts __________________________________________________________________ Volume 18, Issue 1 | January 2013 Hilson TECHNIQUES & APPLICATIONS Gateway vectors for transformation of cereals Mansour Karimi, Dirk Inzé, Mieke Van Lijsebettens, Pierre Hilson Friml OPINION Origin and evolution of PIN auxin transporters in the green lineage Tom Viaene, Charles F. Delwiche, Stefan A. Rensing, Jiri Friml Bowman OPINION Detecting trends in tree growth: not so simple David M.J.S. Bowman, Roel J.W. Brienen, Emanuel Gloor, Oliver L. Phillips, Lynda D. Prior Pogson REVIEW (From the Cover) Balancing metabolites in drought: the sulfur assimilation conundrum Kai Xun Chan, Markus Wirtz, Su Yin Phua, Gonzalo M. Estavillo, Barry J. Pogson Sheen1 REVIEW FREE online CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen Finnegan REVIEW Grasses provide new insights into regulation of shoot branching Tesfamichael H. Kebrom, Wolfgang Spielmeyer, E. Jean Finnegan Scheller REVIEW Golgi-localized enzyme complexes for plant cell wall biosynthesis Ai Oikawa, Christian Have Lund, Yumiko Sakuragi, Henrik V. Scheller SpecialIssue TIPS Special issue: Specificity of plant–enemy interactions Volume 17, Issue 5 | May 2012 Individual plant and enemy species (or populations) are reciprocally interacting in a way that shapes their traits and evolution. This concept of specificity in plant–herbivore and plant–pathogen interactions is central to this special issue of Trends in Plant Science. Key questions are how plants manage to defend against diverse enemies; why plant enemies are specialized at all and if most current plant–enemy interactions are the result of a coevolutionary history. In order to address these questions, the collection of articles in this issue combines perspectives of the plant with those of its enemies. This issue also sees the launch of a new article format in the journal: TrendsTalk, which provides a perspective on the career of plant scientists. Listen to the accompanying Podcast » How plant defenses have shaped the fussy dining habits of insects, with Anurag Agrawal [EMBED] You can listen directly by clicking on the player above. For a complete list of Cell Press podcasts, you can subscribe via iTunes or view the archive. __________________________________________________________________ New article formats 2012 sees the launch of two new article formats in Trends in Plant Science: Scientific Life:TrendsTalk articles provide insight into individual scientific careers. Spotlight articles provide a forum for discussion of issues and advancements that are of broad significance to the plant science community. Topics will include future outlook essays that serve to introduce or encourage research in a new field and new insights on long-standing questions and debates. Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Jen Sheen Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Martin Heil Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Anurag Agrawal Spotlight Brassinosteroids tailor stomatal production to different environments Gustavo E. Gudesblat, Camilla Betti, and Eugenia Russinova Spotlight Towards understanding plant bioacoustics Monica Gagliano, Stefano Mancuso, and Daniel Robert Spotlight New foods for thought Kendal D. Hirschi __________________________________________________________________ Collections These collections contain Opinion and Review articles published in Trends in Plant Science within the past two years and are updated monthly. A valuable resource for students or researchers new to the field. Biotic Stress Abiotic Stress Genomics, Genetics and Molecular Evolution Cell Signalling and Gene Regulation Growth & Development Systems Biology Physiology & Metabolism Plant Biotechnology __________________________________________________________________ Most Read Articles RSS Icon Article Feed These are the five most downloaded papers for the 30 days preceding January 21, 2013. See full list of most read articles Phytoalexins in defense against pathogens Ishita Ahuja, Ralph Kissen, Atle M. Bones 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.11.002 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1181 kb); | Supplemental Data Cracking the elusive alignment hypothesis: the microtubule–cellulose synthase nexus unraveled Martin Bringmann, Benoit Landrein, Christian Schudoma, Olivier Hamant, Marie-Theres Hauser, Staffan Persson 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.003 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1935 kb); CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data Alternative splicing in plants – coming of age Naeem H. Syed, Maria Kalyna, Yamile Marquez, Andrea Barta, John W.S. Brown 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.001 Summary | Full Text | PDF (472 kb); Evolution of jasmonate and salicylate signal crosstalk Jennifer S. Thaler, Parris T. Humphrey, Noah K. Whiteman 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.02.010 Summary | Full Text | PDF (280 kb); [plant-science;pos=bottom;sz=728x90;ord=95551?] Cell Press Logo [Visit another Cell Press journal______] GO * Contact Us | * Terms and Conditions | * Privacy Policy | * SiteMap Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. skip page navigation Oregon State University Department of Horticulture Landscape Plants Images, Identification, and Information Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 Home Page __________________________________________________________________ Trying to identify a woody plant? See the new woody plant identification system. plant images __________________________________________________________________ This site was developed with partial financial support from the: Oregon Master Gardener Association and the J. Frank Schmidt Family Charitable Foundation __________________________________________________________________ This site contains images and information on over 1,700 landscape plants (mostly woody) listed in alphabetical order by genus, from Abelia to Zelkova. Because of the large number of plant entries, the site is divided into four "sub-sites" or "volumes". Volumes 1, 2 and 3 cover a separate portion of the alphabetical plant list, as shown below (or search the Common Name List). CAPTION: First letter of genus (or a Genus itself) Volume 1 A Abelia Abeliophyllum Abies Acca Acer Actinidia Adansonia Aden ium Adenocarpus Aesculus Ailanthus Akebia Albizia Alnus Amelanchier Amorpha Ampelopsis Andromeda Aralia Araucaria Arbutus Arctostaphylos Ar disis Aronia Artemisia Asimina Atriplex Aucuba Azara B Baccharis Bauhinia Berberis Betula Brachyglottis Buddleia Bumelia Buxus C Callicarpa Calluna Calocedrus Calycanthus Camellia Campsis Caragana Carissa Carnegiea Carpinus Carya Caryopteris Castanea Catalpa Cathaya Ceanothus Cedrus Celastrus Celtis Cephalanthus Cephalotaxus Cer atonia Cercidiphyllum Cercidium Cercis Cercocarpus Chaenomeles Chamaeba tiaria Chamaecyparis Chilopsis Chimonanthus Chionanthus *Chitalpa Choisya Chrysolepis Chrysothamnus Cinnamomum Cistus Cladrastis Clematis Clerodendrum Clethra Coleogyne Cornus Corylopsis Corylus Cotinus Cotoneaster Crataeg us Cryptomeria Cunninghamia *Cupressocyparisa Cupressus Cydonia Cytisus D Daboecia Daphne Daphniphyllum Dasiphora Davidia Deutzia Diospyros Dirca Disanthus Drimys E Edgeworthia Elaeagnus Encelia Enkianthus Ephedra Erica Eriob otrya Escallonia Eucalyptus Eucommia Euonymus Evodia Exochorda Volume 2 F Fagus *Fatshedera Fatsia Feijoa Ficus Firmiana Fontanesia Forsythia Fouquieria Fothergilla Fragaria Franklinia Fraxinus Fremontodend ron Fuchsia G Garrya Gaultheria Genista Ginkgo Gleditsia Grevillea Gymnocl adus H Hakea Halesia Hamamelis Hebe Hedera Heptacodium Heteromeles Hibiscus Hippophae Holodiscus Hovenia Hydrangea Hyp ericum I Iberis Idesia Ilex Illicium Itea J Jasminum Juglans Juniperus K Kalmia Kalopanax Kerria Kniphofia Koelreuteria Kolkwitzia L Laburnum Lagerstroemia Larix Larrea Laurus Lavatera Leucotho e Leycesteria Ligustrum Lindera Liquidambar Liriodendron Lithocarpus Lithodora Lonicera Loropetalum Luma M Maackia Maclura Magnolia Mahonia Malus Manglietia Maytenus Melaleuca Menziesia Metasequoia Microbiota Microcachrys Mitchella Morus Myrica Myrtus N Nandina Neviusia Nothofagus Nyssa O Oemleria Olea Olearia Oplopanaxa Osmanthus Ostrya Oxalis Ox ydendrum Volume 3 P Pachysandra Paeonia Parakmeria Parrotia Parrotiopsis Parthenocissus Passiflora Paulownia Paxistima Phellodendron Phil adelphus Phillyrea Photinia Physocarpus Picea Pieris Pinus Pistacia Pittosporum Platanus Platycarya Podocarpus Polygonum Polystichum Poncirus Populus Potentilla Prumnopitys Prunus Pseudolarix Pseu dotsuga Ptelea Pterocarya Pterostyrax Punica Purshia Pyracantha Pyrus Q Quercus Quillaja R Rhamnus Rhaphiolepis Rhododendron Rhodotypos Rhus Ribes Robinia Rosa Rosmarinus Rubus S Salix Sambucus Santolina Sapindus Sarcococca Sassafras Sciadopitys Sequoia Sequoiadendron Shepherdia Sideroxylon Simmondsia Skimmia Sophora Sorbus Spiraea Stachyurus Stewartia Styrax Symphoricarpos Sympl ocos Syringa T Taiwania Tamarix Taxodium Taxus Ternstroemia Tetradium Theve tia Thuja Thujopsis Tibouchina Tilia Toona Trachelospermum Trachyca rpus Tsuga U Ulex Ulmus Umbellularia V Vaccinium Vancouveria Viburnum Vinca Vitex Vitis W Waldsteinia Washingtonia Weigela Widdringtonia Wisteria Wolle mia X Xanthocyparis Y Yucca Z Zanthoxylum Zelkova Ziziphus The last volume covers 75 herbaceous annuals or perennials Volume 4 Herbaceous Ornamental Plants __________________________________________________________________ Some additional items: * You may search for a given plant using the Common Name List. * Plants with their names in green (for example, Acer circinatum [Vine Maple]) are native to Oregon, or have become naturalized in the State. To view the list of such woody plants select Native List. * Click here for information on USDA Hardiness Zones from the US National Arboretum. * Information on Sunset's Climate Zones for Oregon, Washington and Idaho. * Some background information on Scientific Plant Names * Glossary of Some Technical Terms * Plant Identification: Examining Leaves * References * Trying to identify an unkown woody plant? See the woody plant identification system * Oregon Master Gardener Training * It is possible to search this website using Google technology: (However, be aware that because of the way Google works recent items added to this website my not be found using this search method.) Google _______________________________ Google Search ( ) WWW (*) Oregon State Unvi., LANDSCAPE PLANTS __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 __________________________________________________________________ For comments, suggestions, or corrections concerning this site please contact Patrick Breen, CPN (Certified Plant Nerd), Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University breenp@hort.oregonstate.edu __________________________________________________________________ Want information about Oregon State University? Click on Oregon State University, or write Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-4501, USA. Phone Number: 1-541-737-1000 __________________________________________________________________ Most recent update: January 20, 2013 #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Flowering plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Flowering plants Temporal range: Early Cretaceous â Recent PreÐ Ð O S D C P T J K Pg N Magnolia virginiana Sweet Bay Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Angiospermae Lindley^[1] [P.D. Cantino & M.J. Donoghue]^[2] Clades Amborellaceae Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae * Ceratophyllaceae * Chloranthaceae * Eudicotyledoneae (eudicots) * Magnoliidae * Monocotyledoneae (monocots) Synonyms Anthophyta Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm., 1966 The flowering plants (angiosperms), also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies (derived characteristics). These characteristics include flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; they are fruiting plants, although more commonly referred to as flowering plants. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245â202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60â100 million years ago. Contents * 1 Angiosperm derived characteristics * 2 Evolution * 3 Classification + 3.1 History of classification + 3.2 Flowering plant diversity * 4 Vascular anatomy * 5 The flower, fruit, and seed + 5.1 Flowers + 5.2 Fertilization and embryogenesis + 5.3 Fruit and seed * 6 Economic importance * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 Further reading * 10 External links [edit] Angiosperm derived characteristics Bud of a pink rose * Flowers The flowers, which are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers aid angiosperms by enabling a wider range of adaptability and broadening the ecological niches open to them.^[clarification needed] This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems.^[citation needed] * Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also become modified through time^[clarification needed] to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.^[clarification needed] * Reduced male parts, three cells The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants.^[citation needed] The smaller pollen decreases the time^[clarification needed] from pollination â the pollen grain reaching the female plant â to fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination. The shorter time leads to angiosperm plants' setting seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms, which is a distinct evolutionary advantage.^[clarification needed] * Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes and controls.^[clarification needed] This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized, the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal. * Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches.^[clarification needed] * Endosperm In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans.^[citation needed] The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest. [edit] Evolution Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab apple) Further information: Evolutionary history of plants#Flowers Fossilized spores suggest that higher plants (embryophytes) have lived on the land for at least 475 million years.^[3] Early land plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Sellaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed. The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (males) of Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin.^[4] However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic (245â202 million years ago). A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.^[citation needed] The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of whole genome duplication events.^[5] These occurred at 319 million years ago and 192 million years ago respectively. The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period),^[6] while pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 million years BP. However, one study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria, traditionally considered a type of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or at least a close relative.^[7] In addition, circumstantial chemical evidence has been found for the existence of angiosperms as early as 250 million years ago. Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids.^[8]^[9] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are not known to have been flowering plants themselves. Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics ^[10]^[11] showed that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies ^[12] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.^[13] The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007 estimated that the division of the five most recent (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago.^[14] By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes, but large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the Cretaceous 65 millions years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Tertiary.^[15] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.^[16] Yet, many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Two bees on a flower head of Creeping Thistle, Cirsium arvense It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently. Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of specialization in both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). While many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.^[17] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary-inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.^[18] A few paleontologists have also come up with an idea that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the idea's biggest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or coping with predation by herbivores.^[citation needed] [edit] Classification Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae magnoliids Chloranthales monocots Ceratophyllum eudicots The phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III (2009).^[19] Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae monocots Chloranthales magnoliids Ceratophyllum eudicots Alternative phylogeny (2010)^[20] There are eight groups of living angiosperms: * Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia; * Nymphaeales, about 80 species,^[21] water lilies and Hydatellaceae; * Austrobaileyales, about 100 species^[21] of woody plants from various parts of the world; * Chloranthales, several dozen species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves; * Magnoliidae, about 9,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper; * Monocotyledonae, about 70,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leavesâfor example grasses, orchids, and palms; * Ceratophyllum, about 6 species^[21] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants; * Eudicotyledonae, about 175,000 species,^[21] characterized by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks. The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales.^[22] The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. The five other groups form the clade Mesangiospermae. The relationship between the three broadest of these groups (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots) remains unclear. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots.^[20] Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. [edit] History of classification From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek αγγείον, angeÃon (bottle, vessel) and ÏÏÎÏμα, (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carolus Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name Gymnosperms. From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. Auxanometer: Device for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today. In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003^[23] and 2009^[19] revisions, treat the flowering plants as a clade called angiosperms without a formal botanical name. However, a formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants form the Subclass Magnoliidae.^[24] The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as APG II in 2003^[23] and as APG III in 2009.^[19]^[25] Monocot (left) and dicot seedlings Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliacae) and Liliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon (plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor a reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (clade) but that the dicots do not (they are paraphyletic). Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species do form a monophyletic group, called the eudicots or tricolpates. Of the remaining dicot species, most belong to a third major clade known as the Magnoliidae, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of primitive species known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae. [edit] Flowering plant diversity A poster of twelve different species of flowers of the Asteraceae family The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.^[26]^[27]^[28] This compares to around 12,000 species of moss^[29] or 11,000 species of pteridophytes,^[30] showing that the flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II^[23] (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.^[19] The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5 clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e., lesser than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families. The 42 most-diverse of 443 families of flowering plants by species,^[31] in their APG circumscriptions, are 1. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species; 2. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950; 3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400; 4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150;^[32] 5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035; 6. Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175; 7. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735; 8. Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005; 9. Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625; 10. Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555; 11. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350; 12. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225; 13. Araceae (arum family): 4,025; 14. Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995; 15. Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870; 16. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780; 17. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710: 18. Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600; 19. Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500; 20. Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830; 21. Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740; 22. Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625; 23. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525; 24. Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500; 25. Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460; 26. Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380; 27. Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361; 28. Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220; 29. Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200; 30. Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060; 31. Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050; 32. Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025; 33. Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020; 34. Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815; 35. Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745; 36. Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700; 37. Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650; 38. Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600; 39. Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600; 40. Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580; 41. Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500; 42. Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450. Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families; Piperaceae, Lauraceae, and Annonaceae are magnoliid (acot); the others are eudicot. [edit] Vascular anatomy Cross-section of a stem of the angiosperm flax: 1. Pith, 2. Protoxylem, 3. Xylem I, 4. Phloem I, 5. Sclerenchyma (bast fibre), 6. Cortex, 7. Epidermis The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings. In the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases. [edit] The flower, fruit, and seed [edit] Flowers Main articles: Flower and Plant sexuality A collection of flowers forming an inflorescence The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence. There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls). The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self- and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. [edit] Fertilization and embryogenesis Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis Angiosperm life cycle Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into fruit and the ovule will develop into seed. [edit] Fruit and seed Main articles: Seed and Fruit The fruit of the Aesculus or Horse Chestnut tree As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently, the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry, and others. The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit. [edit] Economic importance Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) Agriculture is almost entirely dependent upon angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn â maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.). In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants is timber production. [edit] See also Portal icon Plants portal Portal icon Botany portal Portal icon Agriculture and Agronomy portal * List of garden plants * List of plants by common name * List of plant orders * List of systems of plant taxonomy [edit] References 1. ^ Lindley, J (1830). Introduction to the Natural System of Botany. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. xxxvi. 2. ^ Cantino, Philip D.; James A. Doyle, Sean W. Graham, Walter S. Judd, Richard G. Olmstead, Douglas E. 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JSTOR 1554864. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content//iapt/tax/2002/00000051/00000 003/art00009.> 27. ^ Scotland, R. W. & Wortley, A. H. (2003). "How many species of seed plants are there?". Taxon 52 (1): 101â104. doi:10.2307/3647306. JSTOR 3647306. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/000000 01/art00011. 28. ^ Govaerts, R.url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/ 00000003/art00016+(2003). "How many species of seed plants are there? â a response". Taxon 52 (3): 583â584. doi:10.2307/3647457. JSTOR 3647457.^[dead link] 29. ^ Goffinet, Bernard; William R. Buck (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification". Monographs in Systematic Botany (Missouri Botanical Garden Press) 98: 205â239. 30. ^ Raven, Peter H., Ray F. Evert, & Susan E. Eichhorn, 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th edition. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. 31. ^ Stevens, P.F. (2011). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)". http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html. 32. ^ "Kew Scientist 30 (October2006)". http://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf. [edit] Further reading * Cronquist, Arthur (1981). An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 0-231-03880-1. * Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55407-206-9. * Dilcher, D. (2000). "Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (13): 7030. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. * Simpson, M.G. Plant Systematics, 2nd Edition. Elsevier/Academic Press. 2010. * Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman. 2004. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Magnoliophyta Wikispecies has information related to: Magnoliophyta The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Magnoliophyta * Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Dr. Harmut H. Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster â Flowering Plant Systamatics * Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette. * Watson, L. and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. * Flowering plant at the Encyclopedia of Life This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. * v * t * e Botany Subdisciplines of botany * Ethnobotany * Paleobotany * Plant anatomy * Plant ecology * Plant evo-devo * Plant morphology * Plant physiology 1859-Martinique.web.jpg Plants * Evolutionary history of plants * Algae * Bryophyte * Pteridophyte * Gymnosperm * Angiosperm Plant parts * Flower * Fruit * Leaf * Meristem * Root * Stem * Stoma * Vascular tissue * Wood Plant cells * Cell wall * Chlorophyll * Chloroplast * Photosynthesis * Plant hormone * Plastid * Transpiration Plant reproduction * Alternation of generations * Gametophyte * Plant sexuality * Pollen * Pollination * Seed * Spore * Sporophyte Plant taxonomy * Botanical name * Botanical nomenclature * Herbarium * IAPT * ICN * Species Plantarum Glossaries * Glossary of botanical terms * Glossary of plant morphology * Category * Portal * v * t * e Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato Rhodophyta Cyanidiophyceae · Porphyridiophyceae · Compsopogonophyceae · Stylonematophyceae · Rhodellophyceae · Bangiophyceae · Florideophyceae (Hildenbrandiales, Acrochaetiales, Nemaliales, Batrachospermales, Corallinales, Gelidiales, Gracilariales, Ceramiales) Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis · Cyanophora · Gloeochaete Viridiplantae/ Plantae sensu stricto Chlorophyta/GA Prasinophyceae UTC clade: Ulvophyceae · Trebouxiophyceae · Chlorophyceae Streptophyta Charophyta/GA Charales · Coleochaetales · Desmidiales · Klebsormidiales · Mesostigmatales · Zygnematales Embryophyta/ Plantae sensu strictissimo Bryophytes (non-vascular) Marchantiophyta · Anthocerotophyta · Bryophyta "Moss" · Horneophytopsida Tracheophyta Lycopodiophyta Isoetopsida (Isoetales, Selaginellales) · Lycopodiopsida (Lycopodiales) Euphyllophyta Moniliformopses (Equisetopsida, Filicopsida, Psilotopsida) Spermatophyta: Gymnosperm (Pinophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta) · Magnoliophyta See also: list of plant orders Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flowering_plant&oldid=533330 678" Categories: * Angiosperms * Plant taxonomy * Plants * Pollination * Plant sexuality Hidden categories: * All articles with dead external links * Articles with dead external links from April 2012 * Articles with 'species' microformats * Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012 * All articles with unsourced statements * Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 * Articles needing additional references from April 2012 * All articles needing additional references * Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with no article parameter * Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * Afrikaans * اÙعربÙØ© * Aragonés * AzÉrbaycanca * বাà¦à¦²à¦¾ * Bân-lâm-gú * Basa Banyumasan * ÐаÑҡоÑÑÑа * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ (ÑаÑаÑкевÑÑа)â * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Cymraeg * Dansk * Deutsch * Dolnoserbski * Eesti * Îλληνικά * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Gaelg * Galego * íêµì´ * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Hornjoserbsce * Hrvatski * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * á¥áá áá£áá * Kreyòl ayisyen * Kurdî * Latina * LatvieÅ¡u * Lëtzebuergesch * Lietuvių * Lumbaart * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * മലയാളഠ* Bahasa Melayu * NÄhuatl * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Nordfriisk * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Occitan * ÐлÑк маÑий * Ù¾ÙØ¬Ø§Ø¨Û * Plattdüütsch * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Runa Simi * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Sicilianu * Simple English * SlovenÄina * SlovenÅ¡Äina * СÑпÑки / srpski * Srpskohrvatski / ÑÑпÑкоÑÑваÑÑки * Suomi * Svenska * Tagalog * தமிழ௠* à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * Lea faka-Tonga * Türkçe * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ارد٠* Vepsän kelâ * Tiếng Viá»t * ××Ö´××ש * Zazaki * ŽemaitÄÅ¡ka * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 16 January 2013 at 06:53. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Advertisement. EnchantedLearning.com is a user-supported site. As a bonus, site members have access to a banner-ad-free version of the site, with print-friendly pages. Click here to learn more. Join Enchanted Learning Site subscriptions last 12 months. Click here for more information on site membership. As low as $20.00/year (directly by Credit Card) Click Here to Subscribe by Credit Card Site members have access to the entire website with print-friendly pages and no ads. (Already a member? Click here.) Our subscribers' grade-level estimate for this page: 4th - 5th [labelsmall.GIF] Plant Anatomy: Label Me! Printout EnchantedLearning.com Plant Anatomy Go to Plant Printouts Tree Anatomy Tree Anatomy: Label Me! Printout peanut plant A plant is a member of the kingdom Plantae, a living organism that utilizes photosynthesis, a process in which energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy (food). Plants are at the base of the food web and are autotrophs (or producers - organisms that make their own food). Plants vary greatly in size, shape, and the type of environment in which they live. Structure and Function: Roots anchor the plant in the ground and absorb water and mineral nutrients from the ground. Leaves contain chloroplasts, in which photosynthesis occurs. Carbon dioxide is absorbed through pores in the leaves; oxygen is produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released. Plant cells have a supportive cellulose cell wall (unlike animal cells which lack cellulose). The following is a diagram of the external anatomy of a typical flowering plant: [anatomy.GIF] axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole. axillary bud - a bud that develops in the axil. flower - the reproductive unit of angiosperms. flower stalk - the structure that supports the flower. internode - the area of the stem between any two adjacent nodes. lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of the stem of a plant. leaf - an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most leaves are flat and contain chloroplasts; their main function is to convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis. node - the part of the stem of a plant from which a leaf, branch, or aerial root grows; each plant has many nodes. Label the two lower nodes (the first and second nodes) on the plant diagram. petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant. root - a root is a plant structure that obtains food and water from the soil, stores energy, and provides support for the plant. Most roots grow underground. root cap - a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the apical meristem (the actively growing region) of the root. stem - (also called the axis) is the main support of the plant. tap root - the main root of some plants; the tap root extends straight down under the plant. terminal bud - a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem. Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical meristem, consisting of cells that can divide indefinitely. Phyla: The phyla in the kingdom Plantae include: Ginkgophyta, Lycophyta (lower ferns like club mosses), Pterophyta (ferns), Psilophyta (whisk ferns), Anthophyta (flowering plants), Gnetophyta, Sphenophyta, Coniferophyta (conifers), Cycadophyta (cycads), Sphenophyta, and Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts, hornworts). fir Plant Printouts EnchantedLearning.com Botany and Paleobotany Dictionary yucca Plants A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Click on an underlined word for more information on that subject. 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Advertisement. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c)2000-2010 EnchantedLearning.com ------ How to cite a web page #7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 front page Index 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Search 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Copyright Printable version Search Search ____________________ GO logo INRA Partenaires-TOP Identify yourself * Home page * Sessions * Keynotes * Program / Guideline * Submission * Registration 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference 2012 home page 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference (20-24 August 2012) 20-24 August 2012 Centre Diocésain 133 Avenue République 63051 Clermont-Ferrand, France What is Plant Biomechanics ? Plant Biomechanics is the study of the structures and functions of biological systems from the plant phylum (Plantae) with the help of concepts and methods of mechanics [1-5] (....) Read more ( into a pdf file) The Plant Biomechanics International Conferences : Plant biomechanics is an expanding interdisciplinary field, at the interfaces of biology, mechanics, physics and engineering. Despite its broad range of studies, it has long been felt that the researchers dealing with biomechanics have a lot to share. The first Plant Biomechanics International Conference was organized in Montpellier (France) in 1994. The 2^nd PBMIC was held in 1997 in Reading (UK), the 3^rd in 2000, in Badenweiler (Germany), the 4^th in 2003 was in Lansing (MI USA), the 5^th in 2006 was in Stockholm (Sweden), the 6^th in 2009 was in Cayenne (FG) in South America Over the years, the Plant Biomechanics International Conference has become the central event of the Plant Biomechanics research community, as well as a unique place for interdisciplinary exchanges around the amazing features that Plants have evolved to sense, acclimate and adapt to the mechanical challenges they have been submitted to. Welcome to Plant-BioMech 2012 in Clermont–Ferrand ! On behalf of all the French Plant Biomechanics community and of our International Board , Scientific and Organizing Committees, we are thus pleased to invite you to Clermont-Ferrand (France) to participate in the 7^th Plant Biomechanics International Conference. In the centre of Europe's largest regional nature park (the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Nature Park) and in the historic and active city of Clermont-Ferrand, you will enjoy the interactive overview over the research on plant biomechanics and mechanobiology from all over the world. We are really looking forward to meet you there! Dr Bruno Moulia, Dr Meriem Fournier Chairs of PBMC 2012 News Poster award All the posters have been reviewed and rated by an award committee (members of IAB and session organizers). Each day, the two highest scoring posters according to the following criteria have been awarded. Read more Important Facts The REGISTRATION is CLOSED since July 15 2012 . To see the FINAL PROGRAM go to Program/Guideline Read more Pour les Francophones et le Grand Public La Biomécanique traite des effets physiques et biologiques des sollicitations mécaniques externes (vent, courants aquatiques) et internes (turgescence, pressions tissulaires) sur le développement et le fonctionnement des plantes Read more General Chairs Int. Advisory Board Scient. Committee Org. Committee Partners Accommodation Social Program Touristic Info Access Plan Restricted Access * cadenas Scientific committee space * cadenas Organizers space www.inra.fr © INRA 2011 Contact | Legal-notice * Skip to navigation (Press Enter). * Skip to main content (Press Enter). * + + About the Institute o Profile o Organization # Scientific Advisory Board # Board of Trustees o History o Scienctific Organizational Chart + Research o Scientific Departments # Department of Plant Developmental Biology @ Groups # Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics @ Groups # Department of Plant Microbe Interactions @ Research Highlights @ Groups @ Research Groups affiliated with the Department @ Computational Biology @ Fungal Genomes @ Are you interested in joining our research teams? # Department of Comparative Development and Genetics o Independent Research Groups o Groups A - Z + Graduates o IMPRS o PhDs + Postdocs + Services o Scientific Service Groups o General Service Groups o Childcare + Reports and Publications o Publications o Annual Reports o Yearbook + Public Outreach + News o Paul Schulze-Lefert was awarded an ERC advanced grant o Press Releases o Event Calender o News Archive + Contact + Intranet ____________________ Submit * Contact * Sitemap * Intranet * * Deutsch * Home Information for Students Guests Journalists Alumnis Job Opportunities Job Offers * Postdoctoral position on axillary meristem formation in barley December 18, 2012 * 14 Doctoral Studentships December 13, 2012 More Job opportunities in German Events Events * Characterizing the circadian clock in seasonally variable settings 23 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * Genetic and Genomic Dissection of Maize Root System Development 30 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * The genomic organization of virulence in the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum 06 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * title pending 13 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall News * Support of the MPIPZ International Max Planck Research School granted for another 6 years December 05, 2012 * European research council (ERC) awarded an ERC advanced grant to Paul Schulze-Lefert November 12, 2012 * Symposium Next Generation Plant Science 2012 November 07, 2012 Research News * Differences in the genomes of related plant pathogens August 12, 2012 * Bacterial community inside the plant root August 02, 2012 * An international consortium sequences the tomtato genome May 30, 2012 * Early flowering caused by faulty biological clock May 14, 2012 * Pod corn develops leaves in the inflorescences April 24, 2012 * Plants use mobile proteins to defend themselves against bacteria December 09, 2011 Profile The Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research conducts basic molecular biological research on plants with the goal of developing more efficient breeding techniques and environmentally sound plant protection strategies for industrial crops. [more] Teaser_image_horizontal Department of Plant Developmental Biology Plants spend their life in one position, and thrive in locations where they are exposed to a wide variety of environmental conditions. This versatility is possible because plants continuously monitor and respond to environmental stimuli such as light, temperature and the availability of nutrients. Such responses alter the growth habit and form of the plant adapting it to its particular environment. [more] Intro_dpt_koornneef_neu_322_191 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics The genetic diversity between plant species is huge as observed by the large differences in many traits. However also within species substantial genetic variation is present in nature or has been generated by breeders and researchers. Mildew_haustorium3_bearb_richard_322_jpg Department of Plant Microbe Interactions Research in the department of Plant Microbe Interactions engages in fundamental molecular processes underlying interactions between plants and pathogens. The innate immune system of plants and mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis have a central role in our discovery program. [more] Mt_hpage_322x191_160712 Department of Comparative Development and Genetics Research in the Department of Comparative Development and Genetics aims to attain a predictive understanding of how biological forms develop and diversify, by using a combination of genetics, biological imaging, genomics and computational modelling. To empower their work scientists in the Department developed Cardamine hirsuta- a small crucifer related to the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana- into a powerful genetic system. Comparative studies between these two species and other seed plants aids them in uncovering the mechanistic basis for plant diversity and helps them formulate general hypotheses about how morphology evolves. [more] (c) 2003-2013, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Muenchen * Imprint * Recommend * Print http://www.mpipz.mpg.de/2169/en loading content Skip to main content __________________________________________________________________ Cornell University Cornell University Animal Science SEARCH: ____________________ go (*) Animal Science ( ) Cornell more options __________________________________________________________________ Plants Poisonous to Livestock __________________________________________________________________ * Home Page * Search Database * Find:-by botanical name-by common name * Scientific & Common Name Equivalents * Toxic Agents * Commonly Affected Species * Medicinal Plants * FAQs * Other Sites Plants Poisonous to Livestock and other Animals This is a growing reference that includes plant images, pictures of affected animals and presentations concerning the botany, chemistry, toxicology, diagnosis and prevention of poisoning of animals by plants and other natural flora (fungi, etc.). [a_muscaria_s.jpg] IMPORTANT:Just because something is on the poisonous plants list doesn't mean it can't be a good food or feed, and just because it is absent from the list doesn't mean it is safe! Many original images were provided by Dr. Mary C. Smith of the Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine. Additional images, text and web pages by Dan Brown and staff. The students of Nutritional Toxicology (Animal Science 625) have also made large contributions through web pages created as term projects. The frequently asked questions is a compilation of some of the questions we have received via email over the years. These pages are maintained by the Animal Science Department at Cornell University as a reference only. We have no physicians on staff to answer one-on-one questions about specific plants or poisons, especially as they apply to humans. We suggest you contact your local state or regional poison control center. For information on who to call or email in your area, visit Poison Control and Prevention Center Directory. Of course, if you have someone who has collapsed or has trouble breathing, you should call 911 before searching for a poison control center. For questions regarding the accuracy of the content of these pages, contact Dan Brown . (c)2013 Cornell University | CALS Home | Animal Science Home | Contact Webmaster | #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Succulent plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with cactus; botanically cacti are succulents but not all succulents are cacti. Succulent plants, such as this Aloe, store water in their fleshy leaves In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents or sometimes fat plants, are plants having some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. Succulent plants may store water in various structures, such as leaves and stems. Some definitions also include roots, so that geophytes that survive unfavourable periods by dying back to underground storage organs may be regarded as succulents. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" is often used in a way which excludes plants that botanists would regard as succulents, such as cacti. Succulents are grown as ornamental plants because of their striking and unusual appearance. Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Appearance * 3 Habitat * 4 Evolution * 5 Families and genera * 6 See also * 7 References * 8 Bibliography * 9 External links [edit] Definition There are a number of somewhat different definitions of the term "succulent". One difference lies in whether or not roots are included in the parts of a plant which make it a succulent. Some authors include roots, as in the definition "plants in which the leaves, stem or roots have become more than usually fleshy by the development of water-storing tissue."^[1] Others exclude roots, as in the definition "a plant with thick, fleshy and swollen stems and/or leaves, adapted to dry environments".^[2] This difference affects the relationship between succulents and "geophytes" â plants that survive unfavourable seasons as a resting bud on an underground organ.^[3] These underground organs, such as bulbs, corms and tubers, are often fleshy with water-storing tissues. Thus if roots are included in the definition, many geophytes would be classed as succulents. Plants adapted to living in dry environments are termed "xerophytes"; thus succulents are often xerophytes. However, not all xerophytes are succulents, since there are other ways of adapting to a shortage of water, e.g. by developing small leaves which may roll up or having leathery rather than succulent leaves.^[4] Nor are all succulents xerophytes, since plants like Crassula helmsii are both succulent and aquatic.^[5] Those who grow succulents as a hobby use the term in a different way to botanists. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" regularly excludes cacti. For example, Jacobsen's three volume Handbook of Succulent Plants does not cover cacti,^[6] and "cacti and succulents" is the title or part of the title of many books covering the cultivation of these plants.^[7]^[8]^[9] However, in botanical terminology, cacti are succulents.^[1] Horticulturalists may also exclude other groups of plants, e.g. bromeliads.^[10] A practical, but unscientific, horticultural definition is "a succulent plant is any desert plant that a succulent plant collector wishes to grow".^[11] Such plants less often include geophytes (in which the swollen storage organ is wholly underground) but do include plants with a caudex,^[12] which is a swollen above-ground organ at soil level, formed from a stem, a root or both.^[3] A further difficulty is that plants are not either "succulent" or "non-succulent". In many genera and families there is a continuous sequence from plants with thin leaves and normal stems to those with very clearly thickened and fleshy leaves or stems, so that deciding what is a succulent is often arbitrary. Different sources may classify the same plant differently.^[13] [edit] Appearance A collection of succulent plants, including cacti The storage of water often gives succulent plants a more swollen or fleshy appearance than other plants, a characteristic known as succulence. In addition to succulence, succulent plants variously have other water-saving features. These may include: * Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to minimize water loss * absent, reduced, or cylindrical-to-spherical leaves * reduction in the number of stomata * stems as the main site of photosynthesis, rather than leaves * compact, reduced, cushion-like, columnar, or spherical growth form * ribs enabling rapid increases in plant volume and decreasing surface area exposed to the sun * waxy, hairy, or spiny outer surface to create a humid micro-habitat around the plant, which reduces air movement near the surface of the plant, and thereby reduces water loss and creates shade * roots very near the surface of the soil, so they are able to take up moisture from very small showers or even from heavy dew * ability to remain plump and full of water even with high internal temperatures (e.g. 52 °C/126 °F)^[14] * very impervious outer cuticle (skin)^[14] * mucilaginous substances, which retain water abundantly^[14] [edit] Habitat Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) Many succulents come from the dry areas of the tropics and subtropics, such as steppes, semi-desert, and desert. High temperatures and low precipitation force plants to collect and store water to survive long dry periods. Succulents also occur as epiphytes, "air plants", as such they have limited or no contact with the ground, and are dependent on their ability to store water. Succulents also occur as inhabitants of sea coasts and dry lakes, which are exposed to high levels of dissolved minerals that are deadly to many other plant species. [edit] Evolution Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) The best-known succulents are cacti (family: Cactaceae). Virtually all cacti are succulents, but not all succulents are cacti. A unique feature of cacti is the possession of areoles, structures from which spines and flowers are produced. To differentiate between these two basic types that seem so similar, but that are unrelated succulent plants, use of the terms, cactus or cacti, only should be used to describe succulents in the cactus family. Popular collection of these types of plants has led to many Old World plants becoming established in the wild in the New World, and vice versa. [edit] Families and genera This section includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but the sources of this section remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2012) Apocynaceae: Pachypodium lealii, stem succulent Asphodelaceae: Haworthia arachnoidea, leaf succulent Cactaceae: Rebutia muscula, stem succulent Crassulaceae: Crassula ovata, stem and leaf succulent Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia obesa ssp. symmetrica, stem succulent Cylindropuntia imbricata: stem, woody succulent Malvaceae: Adansonia digitata, stem succulent Moringaceae: Moringa ovalifolia, stem succulent Nolinaceae: Beaucarnea recurvata, stem succulent Asparagaceae: Dracaena draco, stem succulent Euphorbia resinifera Plant families and genera in which succulent species occur are listed below. Order Alismatales * Araceae: Zamioculcas Order Apiales * Apiaceae: Steganotaenia * Araliaceae: Cussonia Order Asparagales * Amaryllidaceae (geophytes): Ammocharis, Apodolirion, Boophone, Brunsvigia, Crinum, Crossyne, Cryptostephanus, Cyrtanthus, Gethyllis, Habranthus, Haemanthus, Hessea, Nerine, Pancratium, Rauhia, Scadoxus, Strumaria, Zephyranthes, * Asparagaceae + subfamily Agavoideae: Agave, Beschorneria, Chlorophytum, Furcraea, Hesperaloe, Hesperoyucca, Yucca + subfamily Asparagoideae: Myrsiphyllum (now Asparagus) + subfamily Lomandroideae: Cordyline, + subfamily Nolinoideae: Beaucarnea, Calibanus, Dasylirion, Dracaena (plant), Nolina, Sansevieria,Eriospermum (geophyte) + subfamily Scilloideae (geophytes, a few succulent geophytes): Albuca, Bowiea, Daubenya, Dipcadi, Drimia, Drimiopsis, Eucomis, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Ledebouria, Litanthus, Massonia, Merwilla, Namophila, Ornithogalum, Polyxena, Pseudogaltonia, Pseudoprospero, Resnova, Rhadamanthus, Rhodocodon, Schizobasis, Schizocarphus, Spetaea, Urginea, Veltheimia, Whiteheadia * Doryanthaceae: Doryanthes * Hypoxidaceae (geophytes): Empodium, Hypoxis, Pauridia, Saniella, Spiloxene * Iridaceae (geophytes): Babiana, Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, Devia, Dierama, Dietes, Duthiastrum, Ferraria, Freesia, Geissorhiza, Gladiolus, Hesperantha, Ixia, Lapeirousia, Melasphaerula, Micranthus, Moraea, Pillansia, Radinosiphon, Romulea, Sparaxis, Syringodea, Thereianthus, Tritonia, Tritoniopsis, Watsonia, Xenoscapa * Orchidaceae (succulents) Acampe, Aerangis, Ansellia, Bolusiella, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Cyrtorchis, Oberonia, Polystachya, Tridactyle, Vanilla (succulent geophytes) Eulophia, Liparis, Oeceoclades (geophytes) Acroliphia, Bartholina, Bonatea, Brachycorythis, Brownleea, Centrostigma, Ceratandra, Corycium, Cynorkis, Didymoplexis, Disa, Disperis, Dracomonticola, Eulophia, Evotella, Gastrodia, Habernaria, Holothrix, Huttonaea, Neobolusia, Nervilia, Plicosepalus, Pachites, Platycoryne * + subfamily Epidendroideae Phalaenopsis * Xanthorrheaceae Xanthorrhoea + subfamily Asphodelaceae: Aloe (succulents and succulent geophytes), Astroloba, x Astroworthia, Bulbine (succulent geophytes, succulents, and geophytes), Bulbinella (geophyte), Chortolirion (succulent geophytes), Gasteria, Haworthia, Poellnitzia, Trachyandra (succulent geophytes and succulents), Order Asterales * Asteraceae: Arctotheca, Baeriopsis, Cadiscus, Chrysanthemoides, Coulterella, Crassocephalum, Didelta, Emilia, Eremothamnus, Gymnodiscus, Gynura, Hillardiella (geophyte), Lopholaena, Monoculus, Nidorella, Osteospermum, Othonna (succulents and succulent geophytes), Phaneroglossa, Poecilolepis, Polyachyrus, Pteronia, Senecio, Solanecio,Tripteris * Campanulaceae: Brighamia Order Brassicales * Brassicaceae: Heliophila, Lepidium * Capparidaceae: Maerua * Caricaceae: Carica, Jacarathia * Moringaceae: Moringa Order Caryophyllales * Aizoaceae: Corbichonia, Gisekia, Herreanthus, Limeum, Ophthalmophyllum, Saphesia + subfamily Aizooideae: Acrosanthes, Aizoanthemum, Aizoon, Galenia, Gunniopsis, Plinthus, Tetragonia + subfamily Mesembryanthemoideae (syn. Mesembryanthemaceae^[15]): Amoebophyllum (non-current), Aptenia, Aridaria, Aspazoma, Berrisfordia (non-current), Brownanthus, Calamophyllum, Caulipsilon, Dactylopsis,Ectotropis (non-current), Eurystigma (non-current), Halenbergia (non-current),Hameria, Hartmanthus, Herrea (non-current), Herreanthus (now Conophytum), Hydrodea (non-current), Hymenogyne, Kensitia (non-current),Marlothistela, Maughaniella (non-current), Mesembryanthemum, Micropterum (non-current), Mimetophytum(non-current), Neorhine (non-current), Nycteranthus (non-current), Pherelobus (non-current), Phiambolia, Phyllobolus, Platythyra (non-current), Prenia, Psicaulon, Ruschiella, Sarozona,Sceletium, Semnanthe (now Erepsia), Sphalmanthus (non-current),Synaptophyllum + subfamily Ruschioideae: o tribe Apatesieae: Apatesia, Carpanthea, Caryotophora, Conicosia, Hymenogyne, Saphesia, Skiatophytum o tribe Dorotheantheae: Aethephyllum Cleretum Dorotheanthus o tribe Ruschiae: Acrodon, Aloinopsis, Amphibolia, Antegibbaeum, Antimima, Arenifera, Argyroderma, Astridia, Bergeranthus, Bijlia, Braunsia, Brianhuntleya, Carpobrotus, Carruanthus, Cephalophyllum, Cerochlamys, Chasmatophyllum, Cheiridopsis, Circandra, Conophytum, Corpuscularia, Cylindrophyllum, Delosperma, Dicrocaulon, Didymaotus, Dinteranthus, Diplosoma, Disphyma, Dracophilus, Drosanthemum, Eberlanzia, Ebracteola, Enarganthe, Erepsia, Esterhuysenia, Faucaria, Fenestraria, Frithia, Gibbaeum, Glottiphyllum, Hallianthus, Hereroa, Ihlenfeldtia, Imitaria, Jacobsenia, Jensenobotrya, Jordaaniella, Juttadinteria, Khadia, Lampranthus, Lapidaria (plant), Leipoldtia, Lithops, Machairophyllum, Malephora, Mestoklema, Meyerophytum, Mitrophyllum, Monilaria, Mossia, Muiria, Namaquanthus, Namibia, Nananthus, Nelia, Neohenricia, Octopoma, Odontophorus (plant), Oophytum, Ophthalmophyllum, Orthopterum, Oscularia, Ottosonderia, Pleiospilos, Polymita, Psammophora, Rabiea, Rhinephyllum, Rhombophyllum, Ruschia, Ruschianthemum, Ruschianthus, Schlechteranthus, Schwantesia, Scopelogena, Smicrostigma, Stayneria, Stoeberia, Stomatium Tanquana Titanopsis, Trichodiadema, Vanheerdea, Vanzijlia, Vlokia, Wooleya, Zeuktophyllum + subfamily Sesuvioideae: Cypselea, Sesuvium, Trianthema, Tribulocarpus, Zaleya * Amaranthaceae: + subfamily Amaranthoideae: Arthraerva + subfamily Chenopodiaceae^[16]: Atriplex, Chenopodium, Dissocarpus, Einadia, Enchylaena, Eremophea, Halopeplis, Maireana, Malacocera, Neobassia, Osteocarpum, Rhagodia, Roycea, Halosarcia, Salicornia, Salsola, Sarcocornia, Sclerochlamys, Sclerolaena, Sueda, Tecticornia, Threlkeldia * Basellaceae: Anredera, Basella * Cactaceae: Acanthocalycium, Acanthocereus, Ariocarpus, Armatocereus, Arrojadoa, Arthrocereus, Astrophytum, Austrocactus, Aztekium, Bergerocactus, Blossfeldia, Brachycereus, Browningia, Brasilicereus, Calymmanthium, Carnegiea, Cephalocereus, Cephalocleistocactus, Cereus, Cintia, Cipocereus, Cleistocactus, Coleocephalocereus, Copiapoa, Corryocactus, Coryphantha, Dendrocereus, Denmoza, Discocactus, Disocactus, Echinocactus, Echinocereus, Echinopsis, Epiphyllum, Epithelantha, Eriosyce, Escobaria, Escontria, Espostoa, Espostoopsis, Eulychnia, Facheiroa, Ferocactus, Frailea, Geohintonia, Gymnocalycium, Haageocereus, Harrisia, Hatiora, Hylocereus, Jasminocereus, Lasiocereus, Leocereus, Lepismium, Leptocereus, Leuchtenbergia, Lophophora, Maihuenia, Malacocarpus, Mammillaria, Mammilloydia, Matucana, Melocactus, Micranthocereus, Mila, Monvillea, Myrtillocactus, Neobuxbaumia, Neolloydia, Neoraimondia, Neowerdermannia, Obregonia, Opuntia, Oreocereus, Oroya, Ortegocactus, Pachycereus, Parodia, Pediocactus, Pelecyphora, Peniocereus, Pereskia, Pereskiopsis, Pilosocereus, Polaskia, Praecereus, Pseudoacanthocereus, Pseudorhipsalis, Pterocactus, Pygmaeocereus, Quiabentia, Rauhocereus, Rebutia, Rhipsalis, Samaipaticereus, Schlumbergera, Sclerocactus, Selenicereus, Stenocactus, Stenocereus, Stephanocereus, Stetsonia, Strombocactus, Tacinga, Thelocactus,Trichocereus Turbinicarpus, Uebelmannia, Weberbauerocereus, Weberocereus, Yungasocereus * Didiereaceae: Alluaudia, Alluaudiopsis, Decaria, Didierea * Molluginaceae: Hypertelis * Phytolaccaceae: Phytolacca * Portulacaceae: Amphipetalum, Anacampseros, Avonia, Calyptrotheca, Ceraria, Cistanthe, Calandrinia, Dendroportulaca, Grahamia, Lewisia, Parakeelya (this name is not accepted by the Australian State and National Herbaria),^[17] Portulaca, Portulacaria, Schreiteria, Talinella, Talinum Order Commelinales * Commelinaceae: Aneilema, Callisia, Cyanotis, Tradescantia, Tripogandra Order Cornales * Loasaceae: Schismocarpus Order Cucurbitales * Begoniaceae: Begonia * Cucurbitaceae: Acanthosicyos, Apodanthera, Brandegea, Cephalopentandra, Ceratosanthes, Citrullus, Coccinia, Corallocarpus, Cucumella, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Cyclantheropsis, Dactyliandra, Dendrosicyos, Doyera, Eureindra, Fevillea, Gerrandanthus, Gynostemma, Halosicyos, Ibervilla, Kedostris, Lagenaria, Marah, Momordica, Neoalsomitra, Odosicyos, Parasicyos, Syrigia, Telfairia, Trochomeria, Trochomeriopsis, Tumamoca, Xerosicyos, Zehneria, Zygosicyos Order Diascoreales * Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea (geophytic succulent) Order Ericales * Balsaminaceae: Impatiens * Ericaceae: Sphyrospermum * Fouquieriaceae: Fouquieria Order Fabales * Fabaceae: Delonix, Dolichos, Erythrina, Lotononis, Neorautanenia, Pachyrhizus, Tylosema Order Gentianales * Apocynaceae: Adenium, Mandevilla, Pachypodium, Plumeria + subfamily Asclepiadoideae (syn. Asclepiadaceae): Absolmsia, Australluma, Aspidoglossum, Aspidonepsis, Baynesia, Brachystelma, Ceropegia, Chlorocyathus, Cibirhiza, Cordylogyne, Cynanchum, Dischidia, Dischidiopsis, Duvaliandra, Eustegia, Fanninia, Fockea, Glossostelma, Hoya, Ischnolepis, Lavrania, Marsdenia, Miraglossum, Odontostelma, Ophionella, Orbeanthus, Pachycarpus, Parapodium (plant), Periglossum, Petopentia, Raphionacme (geophyte), Riocreuxia, Sarcorrhiza, Schizoglossum, Schlechterella, Stathmostelma, Stenostelma, Stomatostemma, Trachycalymma, Trichocaulon, Tylophora, Woodia, Xysmalobium o tribe Asclepiadeae: # subtribe Asclepiadne: Asclepias, # subtribe Cynanchinae: Sarcostemma, # subtribe Gonolobinae: Matelea, o tribe Maxillarieae: # subtribe Lycastinae: Rudolfiella o tribe Stapeliae: Angolluma, Caralluma, Desmidorchis, Duvalia, Echidnopsis, Edithcolea, Frerea, Hoodia, Huernia, Huerniopsis, Larryleachia, Notechidnopsis, Orbea (plant), Orbeopsis, Piaranthus, Pachycymbium, Pectinaria, Pseudolithos, Pseudopectinaria, Quaqua, Rhytidocaulon, Stapelia, Stapelianthus, Stapeliopsis, Tavaresia, Tridentea, Tromotriche, Whitesloanea + subfamily Periplocoideae: o tribe Cryptolepideae: Cryptolepis * Rubiaceae: Anthorrhiza, Anthospermum, Hydnophythum, Hydrophylax, Myrmecodia, Myrmephythum, Phylohydrax, Squamellaria Order Geraniales * Geraniaceae: Monsonia, Pelargonium (succulents and geophytes), Sarcocaulon Order Lamiales * Gesneriaceae: Aeschynanthus, Alsobia, Chirita, Codonanthe, Columnea, Nematanthus, Sinningia, Streptocarpus * Lamiaceae: Aeollanthus, Dauphinea, Perrierastrum, Plectranthus, Rotheca, Solenostemon, Tetradenia, Thorncroftia * Lentibulariaceae * Pedaliaceae: Holubia, Pterodiscus, Sesamothamnus, Uncarina Order Malpighiales * Euphorbiaceae: Cnidoscolus, Euphorbia, Jatropha, Monadenium, Pedilanthus, Phyllanthus, Synadenium * Passifloraceae: Adenia * Phyllanthaceae: Phyllanthus Order Malvales * Cochlospermaceae * Malvaceae: Adansonia, Cavanillesia, Ceiba, Pseudobombax * + subgroup Sterculiaceae: Brachychiton, Sterculia Order Myrtales * Melastomataceae: Medinilla Order Oxalidales * Oxalidaceae (geophytes): Oxalis Order Piperales * Piperaceae: Peperomia Order Poales * Bromeliaceae: Abromeitiella, Aechmea, Ananas, Catopsis, Connellia, Dyckia, Hechtia, Neoregelia, Puya (genus), Tillandsia, Vriesea * Poaceae: Dregeochloa^[18] Order Ranunculales * Menispermaceae: Chasmanthera, Stephania, Tinospora Order Rosales * Moraceae: Dorstenia, Ficus * Urticaceae: Laportea, Obetia, Pilea, Pouzolzia, Sarcopilea Order Santalales * Loranthaceae: Actinanthella, Agelanthus, Erianthemum, Helixanthera, Moquiniella, Oncocalyx, Pedistylis, Plicosepalus, Septulina, Tapinanthus, Vanwykia * Viscaceae(synonym Santalaceae): Viscum Order Sapindales * Anacardiaceae: Operculicaria, Pachycormus * Burseraceae: Boswellia, Bursera, Commiphora * Meliaceae: Entandrophragma * Sapindaceae: Erythrophysa Order Saxifragales * Crassulaceae: Adromischus, Aeonium, Afrovivella, Aichryson, Bryophyllum, Cotyledon, Crassula, Cremnophila, à Cremnosedum, Dudleya, Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Greenovia, Hylotelephium, Hypagophytum, Jovibarba, Kalanchoe, Lenophyllum, Meterostachys, Monanthes, Orostachys, Pachyphytum, Perrierosedum, Phedimus, Pistorinia, Prometheum, Pseudosedum, Rhodiola, Rosularia, Sedella, Sedum, Sempervivum, Sinocrassula, Thompsonella, Tacitus, Tylecodon, Umbilicus, Villadia * Saxifragaceae Order Solanales * Convolvulaceae: Ipomea, Merremia, Stictocardia, Turbina * Solanaceae: Nolana Order Vitales * Vitaceae: Cissus, Cyphostemma Order Zygophyllales * Zygophyllaceae: Augea, Seetzenia, Zygophyllum (unplaced order)* Boraginaceae: Heliotropium (unplaced order)* Icacinaceae: Pyrenacantha (geophyte) For some families, most members are succulent; for example the Cactaceae, Agavaceae, Aizoaceae, and Crassulaceae. The table below shows the number of succulent species found in some families: Family Succulent # Modified parts Distribution Agavaceae 300 Leaf North and Central America Cactaceae 1600 Stem (root, leaf) The Americas Crassulaceae 1300 Leaf (root) Worldwide Aizoaceae 2000 Leaf Southern Africa, Australia Apocynaceae 500 Stem Africa, Arabia, India, Australia Didiereaceae 11 Stem Madagascar (endemic) Euphorbiaceae > 1000 Stem and/or leaf and/or root Australia, Africa, Madagascar, Asia, the Americas, Europe Asphodelaceae 500 Leaf Africa, Madagascar, Australia Portulacaceae ? Leaf and stem The Americas, Australia, Africa [edit] See also * Crassulacean acid metabolism * Cactus and Succulent Society of America [edit] References 1. ^ ^a ^b Rowley 1980, p. 1 2. ^ Beentje 2010, p. 116 3. ^ ^a ^b Beentje 2010, p. 32 4. ^ "xerophyte", Dictionary of Botany, 2001 onwards, http://botanydictionary.org/xerophyte.html, retrieved 2012-09-23 5. ^ "Crassula helmsii (aquatic plant, succulent)", Global Invasive Species Database, ISSG, April 15, 2010, http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1517&fr=1&sts=s ss&lang=EN, retrieved 2012-09-23 6. ^ Jacobsen 1960 7. ^ Anderson 1999 8. ^ Hecht 1994 9. ^ Hewitt 1993 10. ^ Innes & Wall 1995 11. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977 12. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977, pp. 19-20 13. ^ Rowley 1980, p. 2 14. ^ ^a ^b ^c Compton n.d. 15. ^ Plants of Southern Africa Retrieved on 2010-1-1 16. ^ FloraBase - The Western Australian Flora Retrieved on 2010-1-1 17. ^ Australian Plant Names Index Retrieved on 2010-1-1 18. ^ PlantZAfrica Retrieved on 2010-1-1 [edit] Bibliography * Anderson, Miles (1999), Cacti and Succulents : Illustrated Encyclopedia, Oxford: Sebastian Kelly, ISBN 978-1-84081-253-4 * Beentje, Henk (2010), The Kew Plant Glossary, Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9 * Compton, R.H., ed. (n.d.), Our South African Flora, Cape Times Ltd, OCLC 222867742 (publication date also given as 1930s or 1940s) * Hecht, Hans (1994), Cacti & Succulents (p/b ed.), New York: Sterling, ISBN 978-0-8069-0549-5 * Hewitt, Terry (1993), The Complete Book of Cacti & Succulents, London: Covent Garden Books, ISBN 978-1-85605-402-7 * Innes, Clive & Wall, Bill (1995), Cacti, Succulents and Bromeliads, London: Cassell for the Royal Horticultural Society, ISBN 978-0-304-32076-9 * Jacobsen, Hermann (1960), A Handbook of Succulent Plants (Vols 1â3), Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, ISBN 978-0-7137-0140-1 * Martin, Margaret J. & Chapman, Peter R. (1977), Succulents and their cultivation, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-10221-1 * Rowley, Gordon D. (1980), Name that Succulent, Cheltenham, Glos.: Stanley Thornes, ISBN 978-0-85950-447-8 [edit] External links Look up succulent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. * SucculentCity.org * Drought Smart Plants * Cacti & Succulent Picture Gallery * Cactus and Succulent Field Number Database * Definition of a Succulent * Cactus and Succulent website with plenty of information Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Succulent_plant&oldid=533158 692" Categories: * Plant morphology * Succulent plants Hidden categories: * Articles needing additional references from January 2013 * All articles needing additional references * Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2012 * All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * íêµì´ * Hrvatski * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * ÒазаÒÑа * LatvieÅ¡u * Lietuvių * Magyar * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * SlovenÄina * Suomi * Svenska * à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 15 January 2013 at 05:33. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Or use the following contact options: * Phone: +49 (0) 8808 9345 * Fax: +49 (0) 8808 9346 * Email: info@plant-for-the-planet.org * Huella * Renuncia * Política de Privacidad * Prensa * Contacto * Login * Facebook * Twitter * Google+ * Flickr * Youtube * RSS * E-Mail [site-title.gif] * Home + News Archive * Learn More + Why plants are important + Why plants need our help + You can make a difference * About Plant Conservation Day + Partners * Celebration Stories * Resources for Organizers + For kids and families + For gardeners + Plant conservation tour + Conservation plant sale + Check out these books + Celebration resources Association of Zoological Horticulture Botanic Gardens Conservation International Plant Conservation Day > Learn More > Why plants need our help Why plants need our help bulldozer The world's plant species are facing unprecedented threats to their continued survival, despite the fact that their loss will have significant negative impacts on the humans and wildlife that depend upon them and the ecosystems services they provide. cactus Unfortunately, we know very little about what we are losing or how quickly we are losing it: there are nearly 250,000 angiosperm species currently known, and upwards of 350,000 species predicted (1). The world's plants are greatly underrepresented on the IUCN RedList when compared to other groups (2), but studies indicate that as many as 47% of the world's angiosperm species are now threatened with extinction (3). bg entrance Efforts to halt the loss of plant diversity are ongoing around the world (through local efforts and global efforts that collectively contribute to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation), but this work receives disproportionately less support and funding that equivalent work on animal species [e.g. over half of the listed species in the U.S. are plants, but these species receive only 5% of funding spent on endangered species (4)]. CITATIONS: 1. VAMOSI, J. C., AND J. R. U. WILSON. 2008. Nonrandom extinction leads to elevated loss of angiosperm evolutionary history. Ecology Letters 11: 1047-1053. 2. BRUMMITT, N., S. P. BACHMAN, AND J. MOAT. 2008. Applications of the IUCN Red List: towards a global barometer for plant diversity. Endang Species Res 6: 127-135. 3. PITMAN, N. C. A., AND P. M. JORGENSEN. 2002. Estimating the Size of the World's Threatened Flora. Science 298: 989. 4. KENNEDY, K. L. 2008. The Center for Plant Conservation: Twenty Years of Recovering America's Vanishing Flora, Saving Biological Diversity, 47-58. Contact BGCI - Contact AZH - Translate this page - Legal notices - Accessibility Montana State University in Bozeman Directories A-Z Index Search MSU_____ Search Montana State University Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology PSPP Home * Dept Information * Faculty & Staff + Faculty + Professional and Classified Staff + Contact Information * Undergraduate Program + Crop Science + Plant Biology + Environmental Horticulture Science + Landscape Design + General Biotechnology + Plant Systems + Sustainable Crop Production + Environmental Horticulture Minor * Graduate Program * General Student Info * Facilities * Producers and Farmers * More Information * Bozeman Community * College of Agriculture Dept of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology P.O. Box 173150 Bozeman, MT 59717-3150 Tel: (406) 994-5171 Fax: (406) 994-7600 Location: Plant BioScience Building Dept Head: Dr. John Sherwood CURRENT COURSE FOCUS CURRENT NEWSLETTER CURRENT RESEARCH vimeo wheat video Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology homepage The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology is part of the College of Agriculture at Montana State University in Bozeman. An exciting feature of this department is the diversity of programs in Plant Biology, Crop Science, Plant Pathology, Horticulture, Mycology, Plant Genetics and Entomology. The department offers BS, MS, and Ph.D. degree programs with a current enrollment of 100 undergraduate and 20 graduate students. The department has state-of-the-art laboratory and plant-growth facilities. Student and faculty researchers have access to seven research centers distributed across the state of Montana. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology offers class work for the undergraduate student in either Plant Science or Environmental Horticulture. Plant Science students can select degree options in Crop Science, Plant Biology or Plant Biotechnology. Environmental Horticulture students can select from options in Environmental Horticultural Science or Landscape Design. Graduate students can choose advanced work for a Master of Science degree in either Plant Sciences or Plant Pathology, or a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Plant Sciences with options in either Plant Pathology or Plant Genetics. The department participates in the inter-departmental Entomology Program, offering a Master of Science in Entomology and undergraduate Minor (for more information regarding entomology programs, contact Linda McDonald). An entering graduate student is expected to have a solid background in the basic sciences and a background equivalent to that provided by the undergraduate curriculum at Montana State University-Bozeman in the corresponding area of study. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology at Montana State University-Bozeman offers unique research strengths for graduate students, including 1) the biology, genetics and biochemistry of diseases of small grains, fungal products and the biological control of weeds and pathogens; 2) plant breeding and genetics emphasizing both traditional and molecular approaches; and 3) plant molecular biology and molecular genetics. (c) Montana State University Accessibility Accessibility Admissions Administration Contact List Jobs Legal & Trademarks Privacy Policy Site Index Français Français English English Print this page Save the date Add to your favorites Share Join the group to expand your network ! * News * Keydates * Links * Contacts * Disclaimer * Downloads * Home / Welcome Message * Co-organisers * Committees + Local Organising Committee + Technical Committee * Programme (Sept. 5-6) + Monday, September 5 + Tuesday, September 6 * Speakers guidelines * Technical Visits (Sept. 7) * Congress Dinner * Practical Information * Registration & Accommodation + Registration procedure + Accommodation * Sponsors * Attending companies * Media relations * Post congress page If you wish to be informed on updates about the conference, please submit your email address here: ____________________ Validate INVITATION TO JOIN! Welcome on our website ! Plant-based Chemistry Plant-based Chemistry constitutes a major avenue of progress for the sustainable development of chemistry in Europe. Plant-based chemistry enables us and proves that an alternative really does exist with European rural resources. On the occasion of the International Year of Chemistry, and continuing the event in February 2010 at Brussels (Lighthouses of Sustainability European Concepts for Competitive Bio-Based Chemicals) the main plant-based chemistry players in Europe are organizing an international «Plant-based Chemistry congress” with the focus on the achievements, challenges and opportunities. The meeting will be held in Paris at the Maison de la Chimie from Monday, September 5 to Wednesday, September 7, 2011 and forecasts to welcome 400 participants including academic researchers, industry representatives, policymakers and venture capital providers. The meeting will foster debate and discussions on challenges emerging from the new developments in this field. The first two days of the congress will feature plenary lectures and oral presentations while the third day will consist in technical visits of major French industrial sites such as Roquette and the Lestrem site, ARD and the Pomacle site, Sofiprotéol-Novance in Compiègne, Arkema and Le Cerdato in Serquigny. We look forward to welcoming you to Paris! Co-organisers Supported by Sponsored by Endorsed by * Home / Welcome Message * Contacts MCI FRANCE Aqualuna [allgrain.GIF] [all-in-poll.GIF] [allwind-poll.GIF] What is a Plant? Plants are essential for any ecosystem. They provide all the energy for the ecosystem, because they can get energy directly from sunlight. They use a process called photosynthesis to use energy from the sun to grow and reproduce. They also must get nutrients from the soil. Those nutrients get into the soil when decomposers break down waste and dead materials. Plants require space to grow and reproduce. The size of your ecodome will influence how much space your plants have. All other organisms in the food chain get energy from plants, either by directly eating them as herbivores do, or by eating plant eaters, like carnivores do. Omnivores can get energy either by eating plants directly or by eating herbivores. Likewise, decomposers get energy either from plants or from the animals that eat them. Since all the energy in your ecosystem comes from plants, you'd better have a lot of them. There are several different kinds of plants, and not all animals can eat all kinds of plants. [wind-poll.GIF] Grasses are only edible to herbivores. That is because the plants contain kinds of fiber that many omnivores cannot digest efficiently. Many herbivores have specially adapted stomachs that allow them to digest these plants. [dandelion3.jpg] [redclover.jpg] [grass3.jpg] [Bogmoss.gif] [in-poll.GIF] Fruit-Bearing Plants make fruit. Herbivores and omnivores can both eat fruit or vegetables from plants, however. Fruit and seeds and sometimes vegetables are part of the plant's reproduction, and generally the presence of pollinators will help these fruit-bearing plants survive better and make more fruit. [beans.gif] [potato.jpg] [corn2.jpg] [raspberry.jpg] [grapes.gif] [soybean.jpg] [strawberry.GIF] [grain.GIF] Finally, there are a kind of plants called grains which make seeds that can be eaten by certain kinds of omnivores but not all. Humans and chickens can eat grain seeds. Herbivores can eat the whole plant. [tallgrass.gif] __________________________________________________________________ GO TO: [largeherb.GIF] Herbivores [wind-poll.GIF] Plants [medomni.GIF] Omnivores [bigcarn.GIF] Carnivores [fungus.GIF] Decomposers [pollinator.GIF] Pollinators [dome.gif] Ecodome | skip navigation | | Home | About us | Aims | Contact us | News | Eden Project | New * Events * Feature articles * Plant People * News archive Getting around * Contributors * Stories * Past issues * Facts * Advertising * Join us Additional * Book reviews * Global plant conservation Colombia: From white to green 04.05.10 Plant Talk introduced the Colombian cocaine issue a few weeks ago. Today Colombian's Oscar Cuervo and Nelson Reyes describe how the cocaine industry is ravaging the environment and people in their beloved home country. The Colombian government has launched a campaign to raise awareness among cocaine consumers of the effects that coca crops have on the environment and people. The campaign Shared Responsibility aims to inform people and potential users of the dangers the drugs pose for human health and biodiversity. Colombia is a large country of almost 445,000 square miles and 45 million people. But it's the hugely diverse landscapes and wildlife that makes it so special. The country contains more than 35,000 plant species, an estimated 19% of the world’s bird biodiversity, 10% of fish and 6% of reptiles. Interestingly, Colombia has the second highest magnolia diversity, after China, and the Antioquia region alone contains 16 species (of which two have only recently been described). Because of this diversity and rarity, magnolias were selected as one of the pilot groups for implementation of the Colombian National Strategy for Plant Conservation. Disturbing digital art image of hummingbird taking cocaine. The Gorgeted Puffleg is an endangered hummingbird native to a small region in western Colombia and has become a figurehead of the Shared Responsibility campaign. With ecosystems ranging from the Amazon jungle to the snow peaks, coasts on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and a privileged position between North and South America. Colombia is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world and the sixth largest producer of freshwater. The famous Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson once noted that Biodiversity is to Colombia, what Oil is to Saudi Arabia. This rich natural history includes a vast number of endemic species, many of which are directly threatened by cultivation of coca. New species are constantly being discovered: but some may become extinct before they have even been discovered. It’s well known Colombia is the world's largest cultivator of the coca plant. Less well known is the massive scale of this cultivation. Currently there are 81,000 hectares under production, but in recent years cocaine production in Colombia has dropped by 28%, which may be due to the increased yields of new coca varieties. Unfortunately these illicit crops and the strategies to eradicate them have dramatic effects on the environment such as destruction of ecological niches, loss of unknown genetic potential, trashing of endemic vegetation, substantial increases in carbon dioxide emissions, changes in precipitation patterns and climate, among others. Big chunks of destroyed rainforest can be seen where cocaine is being grown The most obvious symptom of coca production is the very graphic destruction of the tropical rainforest by cutting and subsequent burning. However, there are more subtle impacts including the effect on sources and biodiversity. As a result, the environmental losses far exceed the actual areas of cultivation, and it is estimated that for every hectare of coca two to three hectares of forest have to be destroyed. Scientists estimate 2,100 hectares of forest are destroyed annually in Colombia in the production and eradication of illicit crops and according to estimates the cultivation, production and trafficking of coca in Colombia has caused the destruction of at least 2.4 million hectares of tropical forest over the past 20 years. This deforestation in turn drives soil erosion and a host of other environmental woes. pristine rainforest in Colombia damaged by cocaine production page 1 page 2 > Privacy policy | Cookies policy | Sitemap © the Eden Project, the Eden Project is owned by the Eden Trust registered charity no. 1093070 #zenhabits RSS Feed Finding Peace with Uncertainty How to Wait Less zenhabits : breathe A Guide to Eating a Plant-Based Diet Post written by Leo Babauta. If I could make a single dietary recommendation to people looking to get healthier, it would be to move to a plant-based diet. Eating plants has been the best change I’ve made in my diet — and I’ve made a bunch of them, from intermittent fasting to low-carb experiments to eating 6 meals a day to eating almost all protein to eliminating sugar (all at various times). Plants have made me slimmer, healthier, stronger, more energetic — and have increased my life expectancy (more on all this below). Of course, the diet is simple, but moving away from the Standard American Diet to a plant-based one isn’t always so simple for most people. Changing your diet can be difficult, but in this guide I’ll share a bit about how to change, talk a bit about why, and what you might eat. What’s a Plant-Based Diet? The simple answer, of course, is that you eat plants. You eliminate animals and (eventually) animal products like dairy and eggs. The less simple answer is there is an abundance of plant foods that most people never eat, and eating a plant-based diet means you might widen the variety of foods you eat. For example, some of my favorite foods include: tempeh, seitan, tofu, kale, broccoli, quinoa, ground flaxseeds, ground chia seeds, raw almonds and walnuts, raw almond butter, olive oil, all kinds of berries, figs, avocados, tomatoes, lentils, black beans, spirulina, hemp seeds, nutritional yeast, organic soymilk, sweet potatoes, squash, carrots, apples, peaches, mangoes, pineapple, garlic, red wine, green tea, brown rice, sprouted (flourless) bread, brown rice, steel-cut oats. A “plant-based diet” can be basically another way to say “vegan”, though many people do use the term to mean that you eat almost all plants with some animal products. In this post, I’ll be focusing on veganism, as I believe it’s the ultimate plant-based diet. Why Should I Change? There are a few important reasons to eat plants: 1. Health. The basis of this guide is health, and many people switch to eating plants because they want to lose weight, improve their heart health, stay healthy as they age, improve blood pressure or deal with diabetes. A plant-based diet has been shown to help with all of these things — if you also stay away from the processed foods. A diet of processed flour and sugar and fried foods isn’t healthy even if it’s all plants (more on this below). The healthiest populations in the world are plant based: the Okinawans (traditionally at almost all plants such as sweet potatoes, soybeans, lots of veggies, with a little fish and occasional pork), the Sardinians (beans & veggies, red wine, some cheese, meat only once a week), and the vegan Seventh-Day Adventists in Loma Linda, California who are the longest-living Americans. Eating plants is the best thing you can do to reduce your risk of the leading causes of death. 2. Environment. Honestly, while this is very important to me, it’s probably the least important of the three reasons on this list (for me personally, that is). But it’s huge: the biggest way to reduce your carbon footprint is to stop eating animal products — better than giving up a car (next best) or using less energy in your home or traveling by plane less or recycling or using solar energy or driving an electric car or buying fewer things. The animals we raise for food production use a ton of resources, eat way more plants than we do (which in turn also require resources to be grown), give off huge amounts of planet-warming methane, breathe out a lot of carbon dioxide, and create a lot of pollution. This 2006 United Nations report concludes that “Livestock have a substantial impact on the world’s water, land and biodiversity resources and contribute significantly to climate change. Animal agriculture produces 18 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 equivalents), compared with 13.5 percent from all forms of transportation combined.” And it takes 4,000 to 18,000 gallons of water to make the beef for one hamburger, according to a recent report from the U.S. geological survey. 3. Compassion. For me, this is the most important reason to move away from eating animals. I’ve talked a lot about compassion on this site, but by far the most cruel thing any of us does each day is consume animals (and their products). The cruelty that is perpetuated on these living, feeling, suffering beings on our behalf is enormous and undeniable. If you don’t believe me, watch this video with Sir Paul McCartney or this video about pigs. While I became vegan for health reasons, I stick with it for reasons of compassion — wanting to reduce the suffering of other sentient beings. But … if you don’t do it to avoid pollution, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, stroke, increased death rates, animal cruelty, global warming, deforestation, and higher costs … maybe weight loss would do it. Vegetarians and vegans weigh less on average than meat eaters. That’s even after adjusting for things like fibre, alcohol, smoking … and calorie intake! Half of Americans are obese, but vegans tend to be much less obese (with exceptions of course). That said, just going vegan will not necessarily cause you to lose weight. You could easily eat a lot of sugar, white flour, fake meats and fried foods and gain weight. If you eat whole plant foods, you’re likely to lose weight. Plant foods, for starters, have pretty much no saturated fat, low calories and tons of fiber, while animal foods all have saturated fat, lots of calories and zero fiber. Beating Death: I highly recommend watching this video on uprooting the causes of death using a plant-based diet. It’s a bit long, but well worth the time. How to Change It will be no surprise that I recommend people start small and change slowly. A good plan is to make the change in stages: 1. Slowly cut out meat. This stage is actually several smaller stages. You might try starting with Meatless Mondays and then, over time, expanding to other days of the week. Another common idea is to start by cutting out red meat, and then poultry, then seafood, in gradual stages of a month or even six months. There is no rush — do it at the pace that feels good to you. Another important point is that, as you eliminate meat, don’t just fill it with starches (which don’t have that much nutrition). Try new foods, experiment with ethic recipes, and explore different nutrients as you make these changes. 2. Eliminate eggs. After you cut out red meat and poultry, you’ll be pescatarian (seafood). When you eliminate seafood, you’re vegetarian! If you’re eating eggs and dairy, that’s called a “lacto-ovo” vegetarian. You can then eliminate eggs — and no, they’re not cruelty-free. This is one of the easier stages, in my experience. 3. Cut out dairy. This tends to be harder for most people. Not because of milk (soymilk and almond milk are good alternatives that just take a few days to adjust to) … but because of cheese. I hear a lot of people say, “I can’t give up my cheese!” — and I empathize, as this was a sticking point for me too. It helps that there are better and better cheese alternatives these days (Daiya being a favorite of many). But for me, what made all the difference is not focusing on what I was giving up, but on the good things I could eat! 4. Eat whole, unprocessed foods. This is the phase that I’m in, and I wholly recommend it. You can go straight here if you have no problems changing your diet, but people eating the Standard American Diet will find it difficult, because the foods are very different than what most people eat. For example, most people in the U.S. don’t eat many vegetables, and find them distasteful, especially dark green leafy veggies, which are the best. I now love vegetables, and kale is my best friend. Most people dislike protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, and beans. Most people don’t eat raw nuts — they eat roasted and salted nuts. However, all of this can change over time, which is why I recommend that you move into this slowly. What exactly is this phase? See the next section for details. What to Eat So what do you eat when you’re on a plant-based diet that focuses on whole foods? Lots! A few categories of foods to include regularly: 1. Beans and other protein. This means the regular kinds of beans, like lentils, black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, garbanzo beans, etc. But it can also mean soybeans (edamame), tofu, tempeh, and seitan (protein from wheat, not good for gluten-intolerant people). It can also mean soymilk, soy yogurt, and the like, which are often fortified. Get organic, non-GMO soy. 2. Nuts and seeds. My favorites include raw almonds and walnuts, along with ground flaxseeds and chia seeds, and hemp seed protein powder. Almond milk is also good. And quinoa — it’s like a grain, but really a seed, and full of nutrition. 3. Good fats. Fats aren’t bad for you — you should just look to avoid saturated fats. Luckily, not many plant foods have saturated fats. Plants with good fats include avocados, nuts and seeds mentioned above, olive oil and canola oil. 4. Greens. This is one of the most important and nutritious group of all. Dark, leafy green veggies are awesome, and full of calcium, iron and a ton of vitamins. My favorites: kale, spinach, broccoli, collards. Eat lots of them daily! They also have very few calories, meaning they pack a ton of nutrition in a small caloric package. 5. Other fruits and veggies. Get a variety — I love berries of all kinds, figs, apples, citrus fruits, peaches, mangoes, bananas, pears, bell peppers, garlic, beets, celery, cauliflower … I could go on all day! Get lots of different colors. 6. Good starches. Starches are not bad for you — but ones that have little calories aren’t great. So find starches that give you lots of nutrition. Sweet potatoes, red potatoes, squash, brown rice, sprouted whole wheat, steel-cut oats, among others. 7. Some other healthy stuff. I love red wine, green tea, cinnamon, turmeric, spirulina and nutritional yeast. OK, by now you might be overwhelmed by all of this. How do you put it together? It’s not that hard once you get used to it. Start learning some recipes that combine some of these foods into meals, and over time, you’ll have a few go-to meals that you love that are full of nutrition. Some examples that I like (but don’t limit yourself to these!): * Tofu scramble w/ veggies: some organic high-protein tofu crumbled and stir-fried with olive oil, garlic, diced carrots and tomatoes, spinach and mushrooms, and spiced with tamari, turmeric, sea salt and coarse black pepper. * Steel-cut oats: cook some steel-cut oats, then add ground flaxseeds, raw nuts, berries, cinnamon. * Stir-fry: Here’s my secret … you can make an endless combo of meals by cooking some garlic in olive oil, then cooking some veggies (carrots, bell peppers, mushrooms, etc.) and some protein (tofu, tempeh, seitan, etc.) and some greens (kale, broccoli, spinach, etc.) and some spices (turmeric or coconut milk or tamari & sesame oil, black pepper, salt). * Veggie chili over quinoa: Black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans with olive oil, garlic, onions, tomatoes, bell pepper, diced kale, diced carrots, tomato sauce, chili powder, salt, pepper. Maybe some beer for flavor. Serve over quinoa or brown rice. * One-pot meal: Quinoa, lentils, greens, olive oil, tempeh (or a bunch of other variations). Read Tynan’s post on cooking this all in one pot. * Whole-wheat pasta: Serve with a sauce — some tomato sauce with olive oil, garlic, onions, bell peppers, diced kale and carrots, diced tomatoes, fresh basil, oregano. * Big-ass Salad: Start with a bed of kale & spinach, throw on other veggies such as carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, snow peas, green beans, tomatoes … then some beans, nuts and/or seeds … top with avocado. Mix balsamic vinegar and olive oil, or red wine vinegar and olive oil, sprinkle on the salad. Yum. * Smoothies: Blend some almond or soy milk with frozen berries, greens, ground chia or flaxseeds, hemp or spirulina protein powder. Lots of nutrition in one drink! * Snacks: I often snack on fruits and berries, raw almonds or walnuts, carrots with hummus. * Drinks: I tend to drink water all day, some coffee (without sugar) in the morning, tea in the afternoon, and red wine in the evening. My Food Journal: If you’d like to see my food journal (admittedly not always perfectly healthy), I’ve started one that you can see here. Frequently Asked Questions I’ll add to this section as questions come in, though obviously I can’t answer everything. Q: Isn’t it hard to get protein on a vegan diet? A: Not really, as long as you eat a variety of whole foods, and not a bunch of processed flours and sugars (the white kind that has little nutrition). There is protein in vegetables and grains, and even more in beans, nuts and seeds. I often eat protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, edamame, black beans, lentils, quinoa, soymilk, and raw nuts. Read more here. Q: What about calcium or iron or B12? A: Again, it’s not difficult at all. I’ve calculated the iron and calcium in my diet at various times, and as long as I’m mostly eating whole foods, it’s really easy. Nuts and green veggies are your best friends, but there’s also calcium-fortified soymilk and tofu and the like. Eat some kale, quinoa, raw nuts, various seeds, broccoli, tofu or tempeh … it’s not difficult. Vitamin B12 is a bit more difficult to get from regular plants, as the main source of B12 is usually animal products — including eggs and dairy. But actually, vegans have figured this out, and now if you drink fortified soymilk or almond milk, or use nutritional yeast or a few other good sources like that, you will have no worries. More reading on iron, calcium and B12 for vegans. Q: Isn’t soy bad for you? A: No. That’s a myth. I would stick to organic, non-GMO soy, but actually soy is a very healthy source of protein and other nutrients, and has been eaten by very healthy people for thousands of years. More info here. Q: I follow the Paleo diet and believe this is how humans are meant to eat. A: Well, if you’re eating unprocessed foods and have cut out white flours and sugars and deep-fried foods, you’re probably healthier than the average American. I admire the Paleo crowd that focuses on whole foods and that eats lots of veggies and nuts and seeds, but when it’s just an excuse to eat lots of meat, it’s not as healthy. It’s also not true that hunter-gatherer societies ate mostly meat — the crowd that believes this has made a flawed review of contemporary hunter-gatherers. Most traditional societies eat, and have pretty much always eaten, mostly plants, including lots of starches — respected anthropologists such as Nathanial Dominy, PhD, from Dartmouth College say that the idea of hunter-gatherers eating mostly meat is a myth. Also read this. I’d also warn against low-carb, high-protein diets over the long run — in the short term, you’ll see weight loss, but in the long run they’ve been shown to increase cardiovascular disease (from June 21, 2012 issue of British Medical Journal). Q: It sounds difficult and complicated. A: Actually it’s very simple — you just learn to eat a variety of plants. It does mean learning some new meals, but instead of seeing that as a hardship, think of it as something fun to learn. If you slowly change your eating patterns, it’s not hard at all. Be flexible and don’t be too strict — you’ll find that it’s much easier if you allow yourself an occasional meal with animal products, especially in the first 6-12 months. Q: What about fake meats and cheeses? A: There’s nothing wrong with giving them a try now and then when you’re having a craving for something, but in all honesty you don’t need them. They’re more expensive and less healthy. Basically, they’re convenience foods. Q: What if I’m allergic to soy or gluten or nuts? A: It’s still possible to get all the nutrition you need from a plant-based diets without a specific kind of food (like gluten or soy), from what I understand. More here. Q: It sounds expensive. A: Actually it can be a lot less expensive, if you stay away from the vegan convenience foods (which are fine on occasion). Meat is more expensive than beans or tofu, for example. While fresh, organic veggies can cost a bit, you should get these in your diet even if you eat meat — and in the long run, you’ll save much more on medical bills. Q: There’s no way I’ll give up (eggs, cheese, ice cream, etc.)! A: Well, you don’t have to. If you want to eat mostly plants but also eggs and cheese, that’s much better than eating meat. But there are cheese substitutes you can try, and vegan ice cream, and in the long run, you might find that giving these things up isn’t as difficult as you think. Q: What about eating out at restaurants or social gatherings? A: I’d recommend you take it slowly at first, and eat mostly plants at home, and be more liberal when you eat out, for a little while. You don’t want to make this too difficult on yourself. But actually, once you learn some simple strategies, it’s not that hard to find vegan food in restaurants — some are easier than others, and sites like Happy Cow make it easy to find veg-friendly restaurants in your area. As for eating at friends’ and families’ houses, I’ve learned to offer to bring one or two vegan dishes, and it’s not usually a problem. Q: What if my family and friends don’t support this change? A: It’s best if you don’t start preaching — people don’t like it. This article might seem like a violation of that, but actually I rarely push veganism on this site, and when I do it’s only as a way to show others a healthy and compassionate alternative. Remember that those around you probably don’t know much about veganism, and are likely to react defensively. Take the opportunity, when they bring up the topic, to share what you’re learning, and the concerns you yourself had when you first learned about it. Show them some great vegan food. Share this guide with them. And always be patient. More answers here: Vegan Outreach Q&A, Vegan Nutrition FAQ, Vegan Society FAQ. 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All Rights Reserved [spacer.gif] * About AARS * Press Room * Contact * Search Rose.org_____ go * Home * AARS Winners * Region's Choice * Buying Roses * Growing Roses * Enjoying Roses Home > Growing Roses > Planting Roses * Rose Gardening Regional Growing Guide * Types of Roses * Planting Roses + Selecting a Planting Site + Bare Root Roses + Planting a Container Rose * Caring for Roses * Pruning Roses * Designing with Roses * FAQ * Zone Map * Books * Fragrant Roses Planting Roses Growing beautiful roses begins with proper rose planting techniques and requires neither great rose gardening skills nor experience. The following information describes how to get your new rose plant off to a great start. Simply use a little common sense in your choice of location, follow the steps outlined here and voila - your roses are off to a healthy start. Selecting a Site to Plant your Roses First, choose a sunny area of the garden that gets at least 4 to 5 hours of sun. Do not crowd your rose with other trees and plants. Some roses, such as climbers and shrubs, don't mind company, but most like to mix with other roses or other non-invasive plants. If you're replacing an older rose bush, it is important to remove an 18 cubic inch area of soil and replace it with fresh soil. A newly planted rose doesn't like to grow in the same soil that an older rose bush has been in. Learn more about Selecting a Site When to Plant * Bare Root Roses -An easy and inexpensive option for early season planting. Late winter is the best time plant bare-root roses. Learn more about Bare Root Roses * Container Roses - A container rose already has plenty of leaves and maybe some blooms. Early spring is the best time to set out plants grown in nursery containers (vs. bare-root, packaged plants). Learn more about Container Roses Step-by-Step instructions for Planting Roses 1. If you have a bare root plant, soak it in a bucket of water before planting. For roses that are potted, you can water the pot thoroughly and let it sit until ready to plant. 2. Dig a hole approximately 15 inches deep and 18 inches wide. If planting bare root roses, form a small mound of soil in the center of the planting hole. If you live in a colder area, plant a bit deeper and consult with your local garden center. 3. Add a small handful of bonemeal to the planting hole. Spade in some compost or peatmoss to loosen the soil. Mix the soil you took out of the hole with more compost or peat moss. 4. Remove the rose from the pot. Carefully place in the hole and shovel the extra soil around the new plant. Plant the rose with the crown slightly deeper than the original soil. The crown or bud union should be about 1 inch under the soil 5. Gently firm the rose into its new home and water well. Stand back and watch it grow! 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Click here [box_topleft.gif] [box_topright.gif] EPPO is an intergovernmental organization responsible for European cooperation in plant health. Founded in 1951 by 15 European countries, EPPO now has 50 members, covering almost all countries of the European and Mediterranean region. Its objectives are to protect plants, to develop international strategies against the introduction and spread of dangerous pests and to promote safe and effective control methods. As a Regional Plant Protection Organization, EPPO also participates in global discussions on plant health organized by FAO and the IPPC Secretariat. Finally, EPPO has produced a large number of standards and publications on plant pests, phytosanitary regulations, and plant protection products. more information >> [box_botleft.gif] [box_botright.gif] [box_topleft_c.gif] [box_topright_c.gif] Pour aider nos visiteurs francophones, plusieurs pages de ce site ont ete traduites en franc,ais (suivre les icones [Francesmall.gif] ). Mnogie stranicy nashego vebsajta byli perevedeny na russkij yazyk, chtoby oblegchit' rabotu s nim nashim russkoyazychnym posetitelyam (oboznacheny flazhkom [ru.gif] ) [box_botleft_c.gif] [box_botright_c.gif] Contact us | Links | EPPO Gallery | Follow us [facebook2.jpg] [twitter2.jpg] (c) 2013 EPPO - All Rights Reserved - EPPO Cloud [zendwww1] #prev next Skip Navigation Oxford Journals * Contact Us * My Basket * My Account Molecular Plant * About This Journal * Contact This Journal * Subscriptions * View Current Issue (Volume 6 Issue 1 January 2013) * Archive * Search * Oxford Journals * Life Sciences * Molecular Plant * Volume 5 Issue 6 * Pp. 1167-1169. IFRAME: /resource/htmlfiles/advert.html?p=Top&u=mplant.oxfordjournals.org/conte nt/5/6/1167.extract Nutrient Sensing in Plants 1. Xiaofeng Cui 1. Deputy Editor-in-Chief, Molecular Plant 1. xiaofeng{at}sippe.ac.cn * Accepted September 24, 2012. Higher plants require a number of essential nutrient elements for completing their life cycles. Mineral nutrients are mainly acquired by roots from the rhizosphere and are subsequently distributed to shoots. To cope with nutrient limitations, plants have evolved a set of elaborate responses consisting of sensing mechanisms and signaling processes to perceive and adapt to external nutrient availability. In 2010, Molecular Plant published a special issue focusing on nutrient sensing and signaling in plants (Volume 3, Number 2, 2010). This themed issue was organized by Dr Daniel Schachtman and has been freely accessible since March 2011. Notably, this special issue collected five review and ten research articles from leading scientists in the area of sensing and signaling mechanisms underlying responses to the status of phosphate, potassium, sulfate, and energy. PHOSPHATE Phosphorus (P) is a crucial structural element of many organic molecules such as nucleic acids, ATP, and phospholipids. Although P is abundant in the soil, plants can only absorb its inorganic forms such as phosphate (Pi), which has poor mobility. In Arabidopsis, the root tip is the major site in sensing Pi deficiency. Several Arabidopsis mutants, including pdr2, lpi, and lpr, have been isolated and shown to display altered root growth under Pi starvation. These phenotypic changes are linked to the complex crosstalks between Pi and phytohormone signaling pathways in response to gibberellins, ethylene, auxin, and cytokinins, as well as sugar (Rouached et al., 2010). Plants absorb Pi by Pi transporters (PHT) including Pi/H^+ symporters. Several genes encode Pi transporters required for Pi transport across plasma membrane (PM), and flux into and from chloroplast, mitochondria, and Golgi, respectively. The PHT1 family genes PHT1;1 and PHT1;4 are highly induced by Pi starvation and encode PM high-affinity … [Full Text of this Article] « Previous | Next Article » Table of Contents This Article 1. Mol. Plant (2012) 5 (6): 1167-1169. doi: 10.1093/mp/sss107 First published online: September 30, 2012 1. » Extract 2. Full Text (HTML) 3. Full Text (PDF) 4. All Versions of this Article: 1. sss107v1 2. sss107v2 3. 5/6/1167 most recent Classifications 1. + Editorial Services 1. Alert me when cited 2. Alert me if corrected 3. Find similar articles 4. Similar articles in Web of Science 5. Similar articles in PubMed 6. Add to my archive 7. Download citation 8. Request Permissions Citing Articles 1. Load citing article information 2. Citing articles via CrossRef 3. Citing articles via Scopus 4. Citing articles via Web of Science Google Scholar 1. Articles by Cui, X. PubMed 1. PubMed citation 2. Articles by Cui, X. Related Content 1. Load related web page information Share 1. 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Global Analysis of Direct Targets of Secondary Wall NAC Master Switches in Arabidopsis 2. Fluorescence Intensity Decay Shape Analysis Microscopy (FIDSAM) for Quantitative and Sensitive Live-Cell Imaging: A Novel Technique for Fluorescence Microscopy of Endogenously Expressed Fusion-Proteins 3. Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci Affecting Hemicellulose Characteristics Based on Cell Wall Composition in a Wild and Cultivated Rice Species 4. StructureFunction Relations of Strigolactone Analogues: Activity as Plant Hormones and Plant Interactions 5. Cellulose Synthases and Synthesis in Arabidopsis » View all Most Read articles * Most Cited 1. An Update on Abscisic Acid Signaling in Plants and More ... 2. Plant Cell Wall Matrix Polysaccharide Biosynthesis 3. Chloroplast Proteomics and the Compartmentation of Plastidial Isoprenoid Biosynthetic Pathways 4. Narrowing Down the Targets: Towards Successful Genetic Engineering of Drought-Tolerant Crops 5. 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See Resources Plant Biology Plant Biology The plant group at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory studies fundamental mechanisms in plant development and genetics that impact crop productivity, biodiversity and climate change. Their research uses Arabidopsis, maize and most recently tomato as model systems and expands upon the Nobel prize-winning work done here by Barbara McClintock in the 1940s and 50s. The transposable genetic elements, or "jumping genes," that she discovered are now understood to reprogram the epigenome and are being used at CSHL for functional genomics in Arabidopsis and maize. CSHL has taken part in numerous plant genome sequencing projects including Arabidopsis, rice, sorghum and maize, as well as epigenomic sequencing and profiling. We are part of the iPlant Cyberinfrastructure consortium and the Long Island Biofuels Alliance. The Laboratory owns 12 acres of farmland nearby called Uplands Farm. Here, an expert staff raises maize, tomato and Arabidopsis plants for study. Plant Biology researchers at CSHL: David Jackson - Plant development; stem cell signaling; genomics and imaging Rob Martienssen - Epigenetics; DNA methylation; chromatin and chromosome biology; transposable elements; RNA interference; stem cells; germline specification; plant genomics; plant evolution; aquatic plants Marja Timmermans - Plant development; epigenetic regulation of stem cell fate; pattern formation via small RNAs Zachary Lippman - Plant developmental genetics; mechanisms of phase transitions for flowering time and inflorescence branching; heterosis Doreen Ware - Computational biology; comparative genomics; genome evolution; diversity; gene regulation; plant biology © 2012 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. All Rights Reserved. [CSHL_logo_footer.png] One Bungtown Road Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 516-367-8800 Contact | Site Map | Directions | Privacy Policy #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Evergreen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about plant types. For other uses, see Evergreen (disambiguation). A Silver Fir shoot showing three successive years of retained leaves. In botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs. Evergreens include: * most species of conifers (e.g., hemlock, blue spruce, red cedar, and white/scots/jack pine) * live oak, holly, and "ancient" gymnosperms such as cycads * most angiosperms from frost-free climates, such as eucalypts and rainforest trees The Latin binomial term sempervirens (literally, "always green") refers to the evergreen nature of the plant, for instance:- Acer sempervirens (a maple) Cupressus sempervirens (a cypress) Lonicera sempervirens (a honeysuckle) Sequoia sempervirens (a sequoia) Ulmus parvifolia 'Sempervirens' (an elm) An additional special case exists in Welwitschia, an African gymnosperm plant that produces only two leaves which grow continuously throughout the plant's life but gradually wear away at the apex. Welwitschia can live for over 1000 years. Leaf persistence in evergreen plants varies from a few months (with new leaves constantly being grown as old ones are shed) to several decades (over thirty years in the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine^[1]). Contents * 1 Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous * 2 Metaphorical use * 3 See also * 4 References [edit] Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous A Southern Live Oak in winter. Deciduous trees shed their leaves usually as an adaptation to a cold or dry season. Evergreen trees do lose leaves, but not all at the same time the way that deciduous trees do. Different trees shed their leaves at different times, so the forest as a whole looks green. Most tropical rainforest plants are considered to be evergreens, replacing their leaves gradually throughout the year as the leaves age and fall, whereas species growing in seasonally arid climates may be either evergreen or deciduous. Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen. In cool temperate climates, fewer plants are evergreen, with a predominance of conifers, as few evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about -30 °C. In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous (e.g. a cold season or dry season), being evergreen is usually an adaptation to low nutrient levels. Deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their leaves. In warmer areas, species such as some pines and cypresses grow on poor soils and disturbed ground. In Rhododendron, a genus with many broadleaf evergreens, several species grow in mature forests but are usually found on highly acidic soil where the nutrients are less available to plants. In taiga or boreal forests, it is too cold for the organic matter in the soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily available to plants, thus favouring evergreens. In temperate climates, evergreens can reinforce their own survival; evergreen leaf and needle litter has a higher carbon-nitrogen ratio than deciduous leaf litter, contributing to a higher soil acidity and lower soil nitrogen content. These conditions favour the growth of more evergreens and make it more difficult for deciduous plants to persist. In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to survive cold and/or drought.^[2]^[3]^[4] Evergreen plants and deciduous plants have almost all the same diseases and pests, but long-term air pollution, ash and toxic substances in the air are more injurious for evergreen plants than deciduous plants (for example spruce Picea abies in European cities). [edit] Metaphorical use Owing to the botanical meaning, the term "evergreen" can refer metaphorically to something that is continuously renewed or is self-renewing. One example of metaphorical use of the expression is the term "Evergreen content" used to describe perennial articles or guides about topics that do not change frequently.^[5] [edit] See also * Conifer * Deciduous * Fir * Hemlock * Pine * Semi-deciduous * Spruce * Little Trees * Hemp [edit] References 1. ^ Ewers, F. W. & Schmid, R. (1981). Longevity of needle fascicles of Pinus longaeva (Bristlecone Pine) and other North American pines. Oecologia 51: 107â115 2. ^ Aerts, R. (1995). The advantages of being evergreen. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10 (10): 402â407. 3. ^ Matyssek, R. (1986) Carbon, water and nitrogen relations in evergreen and deciduous conifers. Tree Physiology 2: 177â187. 4. ^ Sobrado, M. A. (1991) Cost-Benefit Relationships in Deciduous and Evergreen Leaves of Tropical Dry Forest Species. Functional Ecology 5 (5): 608â616. 5. ^ Gomes, Diego. (2011). [1] What is evergreen content Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evergreen&oldid=528770544" Categories: * Plants * Botany Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * à²à²¨à³à²¨à²¡ * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * Bahasa Melayu * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Polski * Português * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * Suomi * Svenska * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * Vèneto * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 19 December 2012 at 08:10. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Science Kids - Fun Science & Technology for Kids! Science for Kids Math for Kids English for Kids _______________________________________________________ Search Science kids home Fun science experiments Cool science games & activities Amazing science facts Science quizzes Science fair projects Science lesson plans and class ideas Science images, photos & pictures Science videos Science topics Free Science Games & Activities for Kids Plant & Animal Differences Game Plant & Animal Differences Learn about the differences between animals & plants by sorting them into different categories. Discover more about mammals, birds, insects & plants with this fun activity for kids. Find out which category living things such as bees, penguins, horses, butterflies, humans, trees and flowers fit into. Work fast as the conveyor belt moves across the screen, quickly put the different plants and animals into the correct boxes. Take up the challenge and enjoy this cool, educational game. [EMBED] Science Kids (c) | Home | About | Topics | Experiments | Games | Facts | Quizzes | Projects | Lessons | Images | Videos | Privacy | Sitemap | Updated: Jan 9, 2013 Wayne's Word Index Noteworthy Plants Trivia Lemnaceae Biology 101 Botany Search Economically Important Plant Families Numbered Plant Familes Are Used On Botany 115 Exam #4 Submission Form See A Numerical List Of All Plant Families Used On This Version Of Exam #4 [pdficon.gif] Click PDF Icon To Read Page In Acrobat Reader. See Text In Arial Font Like In A Book. View Exam Off-Line: Right Click On PDF Icon To Save Target File To Your Computer. Click Here To Download Latest Acrobat Reader. Follow The Instructions For Your Computer. _______________ Find On This Page: Type Word Inside Box; Find Again: Scroll Up, Click In Box & Enter [Try Control-F or EDIT + FIND at top of page] **Note: This Search Box May Not Work With All Web Browsers** CAPTION: Look Up Plant Family Alphabetically A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 1. Aceraceae: Maple Family Back To Alphabet Table Acer spp. Maple [Beautiful hardwoods, lumber and shade trees.] A. saccharum Sugar Maple [From sapwood during early spring; many commercial syrups contain artificial ingredients such as colorings, flavorings and preservatives.] Maple Syrup From The Sugar Maple Tree 2. Actinidiaceae: Actinidia Family Back To Alphabet Table Actinidia chinensis Kiwi or Chinese Gooseberry [Fuzzy green fruit with translucent pale green flesh surrounding narrow ring of tiny black seeds; the flavor suggests a blend of melon, strawberry and banana.] See Delicious, Fresh Kiwi Fruits 3. Agaricaceae and Boletaceae: Mushroom Families Back To Alphabet Table [Also Including The Cantharellaceae, Morchellaceae & Tricholomataceae] Agaricus campestris Field Mushroom (Agaricaceae) A. bisporus Button Mushroom [Common mushroom sold in supermarkets; the portobello mushroom is a variety of this species.] Boletus edulis King Bolete (Boletaceae) Cantharellus cibarius Chanterelle (Cantharellaceae) Morchella esculenta Morel (Morchellaceae) M. elata Black Morel (Morchellaceae) Lentinus edodes Shi-Take Mushroom (Tricholomataceae) Go To The Wayne's Word Fungus Article See A Cluster Of Delicious Fresh Morels See A Delicious King Bolete (Boletus edulis) Mr. Wolffia Overindulging On Boletus edulis See A Basket Of Delicious Fresh Chanterelles Some Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain 4. Agavaceae: Agave Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae Agave atrovirens Pulque Plant [Pulque is the fermented juice from the base of flower stalk; leaves of central cone are removed and the sap is allowed to collect in the cavity; mescal and tequila are distilled pulque; other species of Agave are also used for pulque.] A. sisalina Sisal [Strong fibers from leaves.] Phormium tenax New Zealand Flax [Strong leaf fibers 3 to 7 feet long.] Sansevieria metalaea and other spp. Bowstring Hemp [Strong fiber from leaves; sometimes placed in the Liliaceae.] Cordyline fruticosa Ti Plant [Many uses for fibrous leaves of this Polynesian plant.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers Read About Legendary Hawaiian Ti Plant Amaranthaceae: Amaranth Family Back To Alphabet Table Amaranthus caudatus Jataco or Achita [Edible leaves used as a potherb; nutritious seeds cooked and eaten like cereal grains.] Amaranthus retroflexus Pigweed [Edible leaves and seeds.] A. cruentus, A. powellii, A. hypochondriacus Amaranth [Edible seeds ground into flour; amaranth flour was important South American cereal during pre-Columbian times; grown by the Aztecs and southwest Indians for millennia, the small seeds are rich in lysine and the young leaves are high in calcium and iron.] Red Inflorescence & Seeds Of Amaranth Species 5. Amaryllidaceae: Amaryllis Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae The following plants with edible bulbs are often placed in the lily family but are more correctly members of the Amaryllis Family--Amaryllidaceae: Allium cepa Onion and Shallot [Edible bulbs; including many different varieties.] A. ampeloprasum (A. porrum) Leek [Delicious edible bulb and leaves.] A. sativum Garlic [Edible bulb; valuable seasoning and medicinal herb.] A. schoenoprasum Chives [Leaves used for garnish and herb.] See Fresh Red, White & Yellow Onions Garlic: Seasoning & Medicinal Herb See Bulb And Leaves Of A Fresh Leek 6. Anacardiaceae: Cashew or Sumac Family Back To Alphabet Table Anacardium occidentale Cashew [The cashew "nut" is attached to a swollen, fleshy stalk (pedicel) called the cashew apple; the outer shell of the "nut" contains the allergen urushiol and can cause a dermatitis reaction similar to that of poison oak and poison ivy.] Spondias mombin Hog Plum S. purpurea Red Mombin Harpephyllum caffrum Kaffir Plum Pleiogynium solandri (P. timorense) Burdekin Plum Mangifera indica Mango Pistacia vera Pistachio Nut P. lentiscus Gum Mastic P. chinensis Chinese Pistache Pachycormus discolor Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see elephant trees (Bursera spp.) in Burseraceae.] Gluta renghas Rengas Tree [Tropical Malaysian tree with beautiful heartwood; dangerous to work because of urushiol in resin.] Melanorrhoea usitata Burmese Lacquer Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Semecarpus anacardium India Marking Nut Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Metopium toxiferum and Comocladia dodonaea [Caribbean shrubs that contain urushiol.] Schinus molle Peruvian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] S. terebinthifolius Brazilian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] Toxicodendron vernicifluum Lacquer Tree. [From milky sap which darkens upon oxidation; sap contains urushiol.] Note: Shellac is prepared from a resinous secretion on the twigs of several tree species by an insect, Tachardia lacca or Laccifer lacca. This insect is a member of the order Homoptera along with aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs, and cicadas. Confectioner's glaze (also known as pharmaceutical glaze) is an alcohol based solution of food grade shellac. It extends the shelf life of candies and tablets and protects them from moisture. It also masks the unpleasant odor and taste of certain medicinal tablets and aids in swallowing. Since the shellac coating is insoluble in stomach acids, it is used in time-released pills. T. diversilobum, T. radicans, and T. vernix Poison Oak, Poison Ivy, and Poison Sumac. All are painful experiences to hypersensitive people. Dermatitis reactions can also occur from handling the shells of cashew nuts and from eating mangoes. See Photo Of A Delicious Fresh Mango See Photograph Of Delicious Hog Plums See Photograph Of Colorful Kaffir Plums See Photograph Of Unusual Burdekin Plums See Pistachio Nut--Technically A Drupe See Leaf & Drupes Of Chinese Pistache See Resin Globules From Gum Mastic Tree See A Fabulous Cashew Apple And Nut Pink Peppercorns From Peruvian Pepper Tree Plants Of The Sumac Family (Anacardiaceae) See WAYNE'S WORD Poison Oak Article See The Seed Lac Excretion Of Lac Insect 7. Annonaceae: Custard Apple Family Back To Alphabet Table Annona cherimola Cherimoya A. muricata Soursop A. reticulata Custard Apple A. squamosa Sugar Apple Asimina triloba Papaw Cananga odorata Ylang-Ylang (Ilang-Ilang) [Flowers the are source of cananga oil used in perfumes.] Asimina trilobata Pawpaw [A smaller, pulpy berry of the Annonaceae that grows wild in North America; it comes from a small deciduous tree native to forested regions of the eastern and southestern United States.] See Soursop Growing On A Tree Trunk See A Delicious, Ripe Cherimoya Fruit Delicious, Ripe Sugar Apple On A Tree See The Unusual Flowers Of Ylang-Ylang 8. Apiaceae: Carrot Family (Umbelliferae) Back To Alphabet Table Anethum graveolens Dill Anthriscus cerefolium Chervil Apium graveolens Celery [Edible leaf stalks or petioles.] Carum carvi Caraway Coriandrum sativum Coriander [Seeds used as a tasty seasoning; aromatic leaves (called cilantro) used as garnish and in salsa and guacamole dishes.] Cuminum cyminum Cumin Daucus carota Carrot [Edible taproot; also called Queen Ann's lace when flowering.] Foeniculum vulgare Fennel [Edible petioles; seeds used like anise for licorice flavoring in cady, medicines, perfumes, liquor and soap; true licorice from root of a perennial legume. Pastinaca sativa Parsnip [Edible taproot; similar to the deadly poisonous water hemlock.] Petroselinum crispum Parsley [Leaves used as garnish and possibly to freshen breath after eating.] Pimpinella anisum Anise Note: Two very poisonous species in this family with parsnip-like roots and parsely-like leaves that you do NOT want to use as greens in salads or cooked as vegetables. They typically grow along streams or in wet bottom lands: 1. Cicuta douglasii Water Hemlock [One large taproot in a salad can be fatal to an adult human; causes convulsions.] 2. Conium maculatum Poison Hemlock [The infamous hemlock supposedly used on Socrates; purple dots on stems; can be fatal without convulsions. Herbs & Vegetables Of Carrot Family See Coriander & Cilantro Compared See Leaf Bases & Seeds Of Sweet Fennel See The Large Edible Root Of Parsnip See The Petioles & Root Of Celery See Edible Taproots of Daucus carota See Large Field Of Dill In Montana See Poison Hemlock & Water Hemlock 9. Apocynaceae: Dogbane Family Back To Alphabet Table Carissa grandiflora (C. macrocarpa) Natal Plum Catharanthus roseus Madagascar Periwinkle [Source of the anti-tumor alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine.] Dyera costulata Jelutong [Important Malaysian timber tree; jelutong latex mixed with chicle for chewing gum.] Rauvolfia serpentina Snakeroot [Source of the medical alkaloid reserpine.] See The South African Natal Plum Plants Producing Medical Alkaloids Plants Used For Rubber & Chewing Gum 10. Aquifoliaceae: Holly Family Back To Alphabet Table Ilex species Holly [The bright red berries of several North American species are used for wreaths and colorful decorations at Christmas time.] I. paraguariensis Yerba Mate [A popular tea is brewed from the dried, crushed leaves of this South American holly; in "mate cocido" the leaves are toasted during the drying process; yerba mate contains about 1% caffeine compared with more than 5% for guarana.] I. opaca, I. glabra and I. cassine Holly [North American species in which the dry, roasted leaves are occasionally used for teas.] Yerba Mate Tea Sipped From A Gourd 11. Araceae: Arum Family Back To Alphabet Table Colocasia esculenta Taro and Dasheen [Source of Polynesian dish poi; from starchy subterranean corms; some botanists refer to dasheen as variety antiquorum; cultivated plants with huge leaves called elephant ears.] Monstera deliciosa Monstera or Ceriman [Edible multiple fruit or spadix.] See Taro Corms And Taro Plants See Fruit Of Monstera Deliciosa 12. Araliaceae: Aralia Family Back To Alphabet Table Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius Asian & North American Ginseng. [Medicinal tea from fusiform taproots.] Tetrapanax papyriferus Rice Paper Plant [Paper made from the pith.] Aralia racemosa American Spikenard [Medicinal herb tea from taproot; the taproot of another species called wild sarsaparilla (A. nudicaulis) is sometimes used in rootbeer. ] See The Remarkable Rice Paper Plant Ginseng Root Used For Medicinal Tea See An Aralia Called Wild Sarsaparilla 13. Araucariaceae: Araucaria Family Back To Alphabet Table Agathis australis Kauri Pine [Important New Zealand source of copal resins for varnishes.] A. dammara (A. alba) Amboina Pine [Another source of copal resins from East Indies & Malaysia.] Araucaria columnaris Cook Pine or New Caledonia Pine [Timber tree native to New Caledonia with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] A. heterophylla Norfolk Island Pine [Timber tree with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] Note: Baltic amber is the polymerized resin from ancient coniferous forests dating back about 50 million years. The semiprecious gem called Whitby jet is the carbonized remains of ancient conifer forests dating back about 160 million years. See Bowl Made From The Beautiful Cook Pine Article About Amber: Nature's Transparent Tomb The Black, Semiprecious Gem Known As Jet 14. Arecaceae: Palm Family (Palmae): Back To Alphabet Table Calamus spp. Rattan [From several species of climbing palms.] Calamus (Daemonorops) draco Dragon's Blood [Bright red dye from resinous fruit; dragon's blood dye also obtained from resinous sap of Dracaena draco & D. cinnabari (Dracaenaceae).] Ceroxylon andicola Wax Palm [From trunk.] Copernicia prunifera (C. cerifera) Carnauba Wax Palm [Exudation on leaves.] C. alba Carnaday Wax Palm [Waxy cuticle used as secondary industrial source of wax.] Bactris gasipaes Pejibaye Palm [Small palm with spiny trunk; clusters of small orange fruits common in marketplace of Costa Rica during summer months.] Butia capitata Jelly Palm [A South American palm native to Brazil; fleshy mesocarp of drupes with delicious flavor of apricots.] Hyphaene ventricosa Vegetable Ivory Palm [From hard endosperm.] Jubaea chilensis Chilean Wine Palm [Wine made from fermented sap.] Metroxylon amicarum Ivory Nut Palm Phytelephas aequatorialis Ivory Nut Palm [Hard endosperm used for buttons, chessmen, poker chips, dice, knobs, etc; today largely replaced with plastic polymers.] Phoenix dactylifera Date Palm Elaeis guineensis African Oil Palm [Seeds high in saturated fats.] Serenoa repens Saw Palmetto [Small palm native to Florida Everglades region; berries used as herb to maintain healthy prostate gland.] Areca catechu Betel-Nut Palm [Seeds commonly chewed by people throughout the far eastern region.] Cocos nucifera Coconut. [The nutritious meat or "copra" within the seed is endosperm tissue (coconut milk is liquid endosperm); the "coconut apple" is a spongy, sweet mass of cotyledon tissue inside the seed cavity that dissolves and absorbs the endosperm; the "coir" fibers come from the fibrous husk or mesocarp.] There are 2 main types or varieties of coconuts. The niu kafa types have an elongate, angular fruit, up to 6 inches in diameter, with a small egg-shaped nut surrounded by an unusually thick husk. Niu vai types have a larger more spherical fruit, up to 10 inches in diameter, with a large, spherical nut inside a thin husk. The niu kafa type represents the ancestral, naturally-evolved, wild-type coconut, disseminated by floating. The niu vai type was derived by domestic selection for increased endosperm ("meat" and "milk") and is widely dispersed and cultivated by humans. Both types of fruit can float, but the thicker, angular husk adapts the niu kafa type particularly well to remote atoll conditions where it can be found today. See Noteworthy Plants Vegetable Ivory Article Read About The Ocean Dispersal of Coconuts See The Fruit Of A Coconut Called A Dry Drupe See The Details Of A Sprouting Coconut Fruit The Truth About The Infamous Coconut Pearl See Pejibaye Palm (Peach Palm) In Costa Rica See African Oil Palm & Palm Fruits In Costa Rica See The Saw Palmetto Of S.E. United States See Fleshy Drupes Of South American Jelly Palm See The Betel-Nut Palm & Betel-Nut Necklace See Unpollinated & Pollinated Fruits Of Date Palm See Jubaea chilensis: The Chilean Wine Palm See Remarkable Bay-leaf Thatch Palm In Belize Wax From Leaves Of The Carnauba Wax Palm Wax From Leaves Of The Carnaday Wax Palm 15. Aspergillaceae: Aspergillus Family Back To Alphabet Table Aspergillus oryzae Miso Mold [A very important fungus used in the fermentation of soybeans to make miso paste and in the fermentation of rice to make sake.] Penicillium spp. Blue Bread Molds [Although this genus includes some destructive molds of bread and citrus fruits, it also contains some valuable species, including P. roqueforti and P. camemberti which are responsible for Roquefort and Camembert cheese; vital antibiotic drugs such as penicillin are also produced by species of Penicillium, including P. notatum and P. chrysogenum.] See Economically Important Fungi See Miso Paste Made From Soybeans 16. Asteraceae: Sunflower Family (Compositae) Back To Alphabet Table Anthemis nobilis Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called mayweed (A. cotula) in San Diego County.] Matricaria chamomilla German Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called pineapple weed (M. matricarioides) in San Diego County.] Artemisia dracunculus Tarragon. [Leaves used for seasoning.] A. absinthium Wormwood or Absinthe [Vicent van Gogh (1853-1890) suffered from epilepsy and was treated with digoxin from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea). His famous work, "The Starry Night" contains yellow circles around the stars, which are similar to visual problems described by patients with digoxin toxicity even today. Van Gogh also drank the liqueur absinthe on a regular basis. Absinthe is a green, bitter liqueur primarily flavored with wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), a European herbaceous perennial related to the native sagebrush species (Artemisia) of the western United States. Absinthe also contains thujone, a terpenoid component of many essential oils, including those found in Artemisia and the coniferous genus Thuja. Research has shown that thujone not only fuels creativity, but also that an overdose of the compound causes yellow-tinged vision. Either absinthe or digoxin toxicity may have contributed to van Gogh's increasing use of the color yellow in the last years of his life; or perhaps van Gogh may simply have loved the color yellow.] Carthamus tinctorius Safflower. [Oil from seeds.] Cichorium endivia Endive [Leaves used as garnish and herb.] C. intybus Chicory. [Taproot roasted and ground, used as an adulterant in coffee; a weed in western U.S.] Cynara scolymus Globe Artichoke [Immature flower heads are cooked and eaten; the tender receptacle and "meaty" phyllaries are dipped in butter.] C. cardunculus Cardoon or Thistle Artichokes [Globe artichoke derived from this species and may be only be a variety rather than a separate species; inner leaves and petioles (leaf stalks) are edible; flower heads used for dry flower arrangements.] Echinacea purpurea Echinacea [Herb used to boost immune system.] Helianthus annuus Sunflower [Tasty, nutritious edible seeds produced in large heads; also valuable unsaturated oil from seeds.] H. tuberosus Jerusalem Artichoke [Sunflower with edible tubers similar to small potatoes.] Lactuca sativa Lettuce [Leafy compact head; many varieties, romaine lettuce with more elongate leaves; related to prickly lettuce (L. serriola), a common weedy species in San Diego County.] Parthenium argentatum Guayule [Only important U.S. source of rubber.] Silybum marianum Milk Thistle [A prickly herb used to detoxify the liver.] Tagetes lemmonii Scented Marigold [An aromatic shrub with fragrant foliage used for a tea.] Taraxacum officinale Dandelion [Leaves used in salads and cooked as a vegetable.] Tragopogon porrifolius Salsify or Oyster Plant [Cooked taproot with flavor of oysters; weedy species in western U.S. resemble large, blue-flowered dandelions; cross pollination with yellow-flowered T. dubius resulting in sterile diploid (2n=12) and fertile tetrapolid (2n=24) hybrids; in fertile, blue-flowered tetraploids, all haploid sets (n=6) from each parent have a homologous set of chromosomes to pair up with during synapsis of meiosis I; hence viable gametes and seeds are produced.] Parachute Seeds Of Tragopogon Related To Salsify See Photo Of Rubber-Producing Guayule Plant See Photo Of Jerusalem Artichoke Or Sunchoke Edible Sunflower Seeds & Valuable Sunflower Oil See Edible Flower Heads Of The Globe Artichoke Flower Head & Parachute Seeds Of Thistle Artichoke See Photo Of The Flowers & Leaves Of A Dandelion Chicory: A Dandelion Relative Used In Coffee See The Root Of Japanese Burdock Or Gobo See Photograph Of The Herb Called Echinacea See Photograph Of The Herb Called Milk Thistle See Photograph Of The Herb Called Tarragon Photograph Of The Shrub Called Scented Marigold See Photograph Of The Herb Called Absinthe Sunflower Family: World's Largest Plant Family 17. Bangiaceae: Porphyra Family Back To Alphabet Table Porphyra species. Nori [This genus includes a number of species of intertidal red algae that are collected for food in Asian countries; nori is commonly cultivated in shallow muddy bays of Japan; the dried blades are packaged and sold in Asian markets throughout the world; nori provides the tasty black wrapper around sushi, and is also wrapped around crackers and used in soups.] Bangia fusco-purpurea Cow Hair or Hair Seaweed [An intertidal alga with a slender hairlike thallus; this species is eaten like fine pasta in many Asian dishes.] See Photo Of Porphya & Sheets Of Dried Nori 18. Berberidaceae: Barberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Podophyllum peltatum May Apple or Mandrake. [Podophyllum resin or podophyllin from roots and rhizomes; used as an emetic and cathartic; the antineoplasmic glucoside called podophyllotoxin is used in chemotherapy treatment for certain tumors.] Berberis aquifolium Oregon Grape [The berries of several North American species are used in jams and pies; berries of several Middle Eastern species are dried and used like raisins.] Berberis spp. Barberry. [Alternate host of wheat rust (Puccinia graminis), a serious fungus disease of wheat.] See Oregon Grape & Middle East Dried Barberries 19. Betulaceae: Birch Family Back To Alphabet Table Betula spp. Birch. [Beautiful closed-grain hardwood.] Corylus spp. (C. americana & C. cornuta) Hazelnut or Filbert See The American Filbert Or Hazelnut In Its Leafy Involucre See Noteworthy Plants Article About Filbert-Rubber Tree Hybrid 20. Bignoniaceae: Bignonia Family Back To Alphabet Table Jacaranda mimosifolia Jacaranda Tabebuia serratifolia Trumpet Tree or Pao d' Arco [South American hardwood lumber.] T. impetiginosa Pao d' Arco [Herb from inner bark used for immune stimulant.] Parmentiera edulis Guachilote [An interesting cauliflorous fruit related to the calabash.] See Article About Wind Dispersal in Bignonia Family See Photos of Wind Dispersal In The Bignonia Family See Amazing Cauliflorous Fruits Of Parmentiera edulis 21. Bixaceae: Annatto Family Back To Alphabet Table Bixa orellana Achiote or Annatto [Popular red dye (bixin) used for coloring butter and cheeses; dye derived from seeds of spiny red fruits; also used for body paint by South American Indians; chemically similar to beta carotene and may protect skin from UV light.] See Photos Of Achiote (Annatto) Seeds and Fruits 22. Bombacaceae: Bombax Family Back To Alphabet Table Ceiba pentandra Kapok [Silky hairs from capsule; used for waterproof fillers.] Chorisia speciosa Floss Silk Tree Ochroma pyramidale Balsa. [Specific gravity of only 0.19.] Durio zibethinus Durian [An immense, malodorous, spiny fruit from Malaysia.] Pachira aquatica Guiana Chestnut [Large woody seed capsule with edible seeds.] See The Enormous, Spiny Durian Fruits See Large Fruit Of The Guiana Chestnut Cottony Fibers Of Kapok & Floss Silk Tree See The Tropical American Balsa Tree 23. Boraginaceae: Borage Family Back To Alphabet Table Alkanna tinctoria) Dyer's Bugloss [Roots a source of the deep red phenolic dye alkannin (alkanet) used on textiles, vegetable oils, medicines and wine; commonly used today as a food coloring.] Cordia sebestena Ziricote [This Caribbean tree is also known as cericote and geiger tree; the beautiful, dark wood is used in wood carving.] C. subcordata Kou [A Polynesian species with a beautiful, dark-grained hardwood used in wood carving.] Borago officinalis Borage [Leaves & flowers eaten in salads and brewed into tea.] Echium vulgare Viper's Bugloss [Blue flowers added to salads and cooked like spinach.] E. amoenum Gaozaban [Flowers used for a popular medicinal tea in Iran; a rich source of antioxidants, including rosmarinic acid and bioflavonoids.] See Beautiful Ziricote Wood Carvings Medicinal Teas Made From Borago & Echium 24. Brassicaceae: Mustard Family (Cruciferae) Back To Alphabet Table Armoracia lapathifolia (A. rusticana) Horseradish [Pungent relish obtained from the large taproot; a delicious condiment with meat and seafood.] Eutrema wasabi (Wasabia japonica) Japanese Horeseradish or Wasabi [The fleshy rhizome is the source of the green paste called "wasabi" that is commonly served with sashimi (raw fish) in Japan.] Lepidium meyenii (also L. peruvianum) Maca [A wild mustard native to the Andes of South America; the dried, radishlike roots are cooked to form a sweet, aromatic porridge called mazamorra; powdered maca root is sold as a nutritious herb and food supplement; nineteen species of Lepidium are native and naturalized in California.] Brassica campestris (B. rapa ssp. sylvestris) Field Mustard [A common weed in the western U.S.] B. nigra (Black Mustard) & B. alba (White Mustard) [Seeds used for mustard condiment; black mustard is a common weedy species in San Diego County; mustard gas is a synthetic chemical containing sulfur and chlorine, it is not made from mustard seeds.] B. rapa [Rapifera Group] Turnip [Edible root; sometimes referred to as B. campestris; turnip greens from edible leaves; n=10.] B. rapa [Chinensis Group] Bok Choy (Pak-choi). [Cultivated in Asia for succulent leaves.] B. rapa [Pekinensis Group] Chinese Cabbage B. napus Rapeseed Oil and Canola Oil [Unsaturated oil from seeds; 3rd most important edible oil in U.S. after soybean & cottonseed oils.] B. oleracea [Includes following varieties: cabbage (leafy head), kale (non-heading leafy sprout), collards (nonheading leafy sprout), broccoli (immature inflorescence and stalk or peduncle), cauliflower (immature inflorescence), brussels sprouts (tall-stemmed cabbage with small edible heads or buds along stem), kohlrabi (enlarged, edible, basal stem above the ground); all varieties with n=9 and 2n=18; broccoflower a hybrid between broccoli and cauliflower.] B. napobrassica Rutabaga [Tetraploid hybrid between cabbage (n=9) and turnip (n=10); resulting fertile polyploid with 38 chromosomes, 2 sets of cabbage chromosomes (9 + 9) and 2 sets of turnip chromosomes (10 + 10).] Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (Nasturtium officinale) Water Cress [An aquatic weed in southern California; edible leaves.] Isatis tinctoria Woad [Important blue dye used in Europe during 1500s and 1600s; the glucoside dye indican in leaves; one of dyes used by Robin Hood's men for their green clothing.] Raphanus sativus Radish [A very common weed in San Diego County; edible taproot with many varieties, including white and red radishes; giant oriental radishes 4 feet long and 40 pounds; the large Asian radish called "daikon" belongs to the Longipinnata group of radishes.] Note: The bigeneric hybrid (Raphanobrassica) or Rabbage is a cross between the radish (Raphanus n=9) and cabbage (Brassica n=9). The diploid hybrid has two sets of chromosomes, one set (R) from the radish parent and one set (C) from the cabbage parent. [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Since each set includes 9 chromosomes, the diploid rabbage has a total of 18 chromosomes. The diploid hybrid (RC) is sterile because the radish and cabbage sets of chromosomes are not completely homologous, and fail to pair up during synapsais of meiosis I. A fertile tetraploid (4n=36) hybrid (RRCC) has also been developed. It produces viable gametes and seeds because the radish chromosomes have another radish set to pair up with (RR), and the cabbage chromosomes have another set to pair up with (CC). Unfortunately this wonder plant has the leaves of the radish and the roots of the cabbage. See Brief Discussion About Monounsaturated Canola Oil See Kohlrabi, Broccoflower, Brussels Sprouts, & Rutabaga Bok Choy: A Leafy Mustard Commonly Cultivated In Asia See Massive Taproot Of Wild Radish In San Diego County See The Crispy Red Radish Cultivar Of The Wild Radish See The Large, White Japanese Radish Called Daikon See The Large Taproot Used In Spicy Horseradish Sauce Water Cress: Naturalized Vegetable In Southern California Maca: A South American Lepidium With An Edible Root See Photograph Of A Field Of Woad In Eastern Oregon 25. Bromeliaceae: Pineapple Family Back To Alphabet Table Ananas comosus Pineapple [Also fibers from leaves.] Tillandsia usneoides Spanish Moss [Southeastern U.S.] See Pineapple Plants On The Island Of Kauai 26. Burseraceae: Torchwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Boswellia carteri Frankincense. [Resin obtained from bark.] Commiphora abyssinica Myrrh Protium copal Guatemalan Incense Bursera simaruba Gumbo Limbo B. odorata and B. microphylla Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see another elephant tree (Pachycormus discolor) in Anacardiaceae.] Photos Of Resins And Incenses From Plants 27. Cactaceae: Cactus Family Back To Alphabet Table Opuntia spp. Prickly Pear. [Stem segments edible and called "nopales" in Mexico; ripened fruit called "tuna" or "pitaya dulce."] Opuntia ficus-indica and other spp. Source of the brilliant red cochineal dye [Actual dye from the red body fluids of cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus), a homopteran related to aphids, scale insects and mealy bugs; female cochineal insects are brushed from the cactus pads, dried, and pigments extrated from dried bodies; one pound of dye represents about 70,000 insects; source of carmine red stain used in microbiology classes; cactus were introduced into Australia for this dye with disastrous consequences; by 1925, 60 million acres of valuable range land covered by prickly pear cactus.] Hylocereus undatus Dragon Fruit [Sweet fruit similar in flavor to lime and kiwi fruit.] Lophophora williamsii Peyote. [Source of alkaloid mescaline.] Trichocereus pachanoi San Pedro Cactus [Another South American source of mescaline.] See The WAYNE'S WORD Alkaloid Article See Photos of Peyote and San Pedro Cactus See Photos of Cochineal Insect On A Cactus See Fruit & Edible Stems (Nopales) Of Opuntia See The Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus undatus) Camelliaceaeae: Camellia Family See Theaceae 28. Cannabaceae: Hops Family Back To Alphabet Table Cannabis sativa Indian Hemp or Marijuana [Resinous flowers and buds of female plant used medicinally and for casual smoking; resin contains several phenolic cannabinoids, including THC; important source of bast fibers from male plants; these plants occasionally sprout from seeds in well-watered, rural areas, such as the Palomar College campus.] Humulus lupulus Hop Vine [Female inflorescences (hops) added to beer to clarify the brew, prevent bacterial action and to improve flavor.] Information About THC From The Female Cannabis Indian Hemp As A Source Of Bast Fibers For Textiles See A Hop Vine And The Hops Used To Make Beer 29. Cannaceae: Canna Family Back To Alphabet Table Canna indica Indian Shot [Round, hard, black seeds used in botanical jewelry.] C. edulis Achira [Grown in Andes for starchy, tuberous rhizome.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Indian Shot 30. Capparaceae: Caper Family Back To Alphabet Table Capparis spinosa Capers [Mediterranean shrub with tasty flower buds used for flavorings, relishes and sauces.] See Tasty Flower Buds Called Capers 31. Caprifoliaceae: Honeysuckle Family Back To Alphabet Table Sambucus spp. Elderberry 32. Caricaceae: Papaya Family Back To Alphabet Table Carica papaya Papaya [Delicious cauliflorous fruit planted throughout the tropics.] See Cauliflorous Papaya Fruits See Delicious Ripe Papaya Fruit Celastraceae: Staff-Tree Family Back To Alphabet Table Catha edulis Khat [Tree native to Arabia & South Africa; leaves contain the stimulant alkaloids cathine & cathinone; fresh leaves chewed and used for tea by inhabitants of this region.] See Images Of Khat (Catha edulis) 33. Chenopodiaceae: Goosefoot Family Back To Alphabet Table Beta vulgaris Beets [Other varieties include sugar beets and Swiss chard; sweet taproot used for beets and sugar beets; tender leaves used for Swiss chard.] Chenopodium album Lamb's Quarters [An edible weed in California; tender leaves cooked and eaten like spinach.] C. quinoa Quinoa [South American herb with edible seeds that are cooked and eaten like a cereal grain; used by native people since pre-Columbian times.] Spinacia oleracea Spinach [Leaves consumed through pipe by Popeye; very nourishing vegetable rich in iron and folic acid.] Family also includes Russian thistle or tumbleweed (Salsola tragus) and halophytic salt marsh species, such as pickleweed (Salicornia). See Photo Of Beets & Swiss Chard See Photo Of Fresh Spinach Leaves See Photo Of Fresh Lamb's Quarters See The Grainlike Seeds Of Quinoa 34. Chrysobalanaceae: Chrysobalanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Chrysobalanus icaco Coco Plum [A shrub or small tree native to the American tropics with a sweet, plumlike fruit.] See Photo Of Coco Plum In Belize Clavicipitaceae: Ergot Family Back To Alphabet Table Claviceps purpurea Ergot [A grain fungus infecting rye and related grasses; the source of synthetic LSD and several important vasconstricting alkaloids such as ergotamine.] See The Infamous Ergot Fungus On Rye Grass Clusiaceae: Clusia Family See Guttiferae Combretaceae: Combretum Family Back To Alphabet Table Anogeissus latifolia Gum Ghatti [A natural gum from the sap of a tree native to dry, deciduous forests of India and Sri Lanka; the common name "ghatti" is derived from the word "ghat" or mountain pass; this gum was originally carried by people over mountain passes or "ghats" to ports in India; the gum has properties intermediate between gum arabic and karaya gum; because it is a superior oil emulsifier with a higher viscosity, it is used in liquid and paste waxes and for fat soluble vitamins. Terminalia catappa Tropical Almond [Malaysian tree naturalized along seashores of the Old and New World tropics, including Florida and the Hawaiian Islands; the oval, flattened, one-seeded fruit is commonly dispersed by ocean currents; the seed superficially resembles an almond and is eaten by natives. Compositae: Sunflower Family See Asteraceae 35. Convolvulaceae: Morning Glory Family Back To Alphabet Table Turbina corymbosa and Ipomoea tricolor Ololiuqui [New World morning glories with seeds containing the alkaloid ergine (d-lysergic acid amide), better known as natural LSD.] Ipomoea batatas Sweet Potato [Edible, fascicled storage roots; many delicious varieties, including red "yams" and white sweet potatoes.] Ipomoea aquatica Water Spinach [A popular, aquatic green vegetable in Asian countries.] Note: True yams belong to the genus Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae). See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Morning Glories See Water Spinach: An Edible Aquatic Morning Glory See Noteworthy Plants Article About True Yams See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Alkaloids Cruciferae: Mustard Family See Brassicaceae 36. Cucurbitaceae: Gourd Family Back To Alphabet Table Cucurbita pepo Summer Squash [Many varieties.] C. maxima Winter Squash [Many varieties.] C. moschata Butternut Squash Note: Many pumpkins are varieties of C. pepo; however, the largest pumpkins probably come from C. maxima. C. mixta (C. argyrosperma) Green-Striped Cushaws C. ficifolia Malabar Gourd Sechium edule Chayote Luffa aegyptiaca and L. acutangula Luffa Sponge Cucumis melon Melon [Many fabulous cultivars.] C. sativus Cucumber C. dipsaceus Teasel Gourds C. metuliferus Horned Cucumber Citrullus lanatus var. citroides Citron Melon Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus Watermelon Momordica charantia Bitter Melon Siraitia grosvenorii (Thladiantha grosvenorii) Luo Han Kuo or Buddha's Fruit [A small Asian gourd with an extremely sweet pulp; a glycoside in the fruit is 150 times sweeter than sucrose and may have economic potential as a non-caloric sugar substitute.] Lagenaria siceraria Hard-Shelled Gourds [Many shapes and sizes.] See WAYNE'S WORD Gourd Article See Buddha's Fruit (Luo Han Kuo) Gourd Family Fruits: Squash & Melons Cucumber Pickles & Teasel Gourd See Dried Gourd Strips Use For Food See The Unusual One-Seeded Chayote 37. Cupressaceae: Cypress Family Back To Alphabet Table Juniperus spp. Junipers (e.g. J. communis) [Berries (cones) used to flavor gin; sloe gin flavored with sloe plum (Prunus spinosa).] Cupressus spp. Cypress [10 endemic species in California; distributed throughout the state in arboreal islands; cones, foliage & bark variation in populations due to selection (glandular vs. eglandular foliage) and genetic drift.] Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Port Orford Cedar Calocedrus decurrens Incense Cedar Thuja plicata Western Red Cedar Cupressocyparis leylandii Leyland Cypress [A bigeneric hybrid between Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) and Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). There are other species used for lumber often called cedars. Genetic Variation In California Cypress 38. Cycadaceae: Cycad Family Back To Alphabet Table Cycas revoluta Sago Palm [Seeds eaten fresh and roasted; ground seeds should be thoroughly washed because they contain cycasin, a potent carcinogen; the heart of the trunk is baked and eaten, and is the source of sago, a starchy material also obtained from the central pith of palm trunks; sago starch is used in cooking and baking, like the starchy rhizomes of arrowroot (Marantiaceae) and achira (Cannaceae).] C. circinalis [The large seeds used as in C. revoluta.] Note: Seeds of additional species of cycads are used for food, including the African genus Encephalartos in the family Zamiaceae; in tropical and temperate climates, cycads are used extensively in landscaping. See The Seeds Of Cycas circinalis 39. Cyperaceae: Sedge Family Back To Alphabet Table Cyperus papyrus Papyrus [Fibers used in paper making.] Eleocharis dulcis Water Chestnut [Edible, crunchy corms at base of stem.] 40. Cylanthaceae: Cyclanthus Family Back To Alphabet Table Carludovica palmata Panama Hat Palm. [Leaf fibers used to make famous Panama hats which are made in Ecuador.] See A Panama Hat Palm Growing Wild Davidsoniaceae: Davidson's Plum Family Back To Alphabet Table Davidsonia pruriens Davidson's Plum [A monotypic family containing a single species; the plum-like fruits hang in clusters that arise directly from the trunk (cauliflorous); although acidic, they are edible and make excellent jams and jellies.] See Photo Of The Davidson Plum Dilleniaceae: Dillenia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dillenia indica Chulta or Indian Apple [Fleshy fruit pulp is used in curries, jam and jellies.] See The Fruits & Distinctive Leaves Of Dillenia indica 41. Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea Family Back To Alphabet Table Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayensis Yams [Africa]; D. alata and D. esculenta Yams [Asia]; and D. trifida Yams [New World]. D. elephantipes Hottentot's Bread or Turtleback Plant D. bulbifera Air Potato See World's Largest Vegetable See Yams Named After Dioscorides 42. Dipterocarpaceae: Dipterocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gurjun Balsam Shorea spp. (Incl. S. aptera, S. hypochra, S. robusta & S. wiesneri) Dammars Dammars: East Indian and southeast Asian resins similar to copals. Like copals they are shiny and transparent when dry and are used extensively in the paint and varnish industry. 43. Ebenaceae: Ebony Family Back To Alphabet Table Diospyros ebenum Ebony D. kaki Japanese Persimmon D. digyna Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) D. virginiana Native Persimmon See Delicious, Ripe Persimmon Fruit See Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) See A Chart Of World's Hardwoods See "Elephant" Carved From Ebony 44. Elaeagnaceae: Oleaster Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian Olive [Yellow fruits eaten fresh and made into jellies.] E. philippinensis Lingaro [Pinkish-red, gland-dotted fruits are reportedly eaten in the Philippines.] E. pungens Silverberry [Fruits used for jams, soft drinks and liqueurs in Japan.] See The Unusual Gland-Dotted Fruits Of Lingaro See Variety Of Russian Olive Called Trebizond Date 45. Elaeocarpaceae: Elaeocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeocarpus grandis Blue Marble Tree [The fleshy drupes resemble deep blue marbles. They are reportedly eaten raw in Australia and Fiji. The drupe contains a woody, intricately sculptured endocarp that surrounds several small seeds. The endocarps are often strung into attractive necklaces and leis.] E. ganitrus (E. sphaericus) Rudraksha Bead. [The endocarps are known as "rudraksha beads," and were worn by Shiva worshippers at least since the 11th century.] Rudraksha Beads & Striking Fruits Of Blue Marble Tree Equisetaceae: Horsetail Family Back To Alphabet Table Equisetum arvense Common Horsetail [A tea and capsules made from the dried stems of this and other species are used to maintain a healthy urinary system; the high silicon content is reportedly beneficial for cartilage, ligament and bone repair.] Horsetail Tea For Repair Of Cartilage & Ligaments 46. Ericaceae: Heath Family Back To Alphabet Table Arbutus unedo Strawberry Tree [An interesting European fruit tree related to the madrone tree of Pacific northwestern U.S.] Erica arborea Briarwood [Mediterranean shrub with subterranean basal burl (lignotuber) that is fire-resistant and used for briarwood smoking pipes. ] Gaultheria procumbens Wintergreen [Oil from leaves.] Gaylussacia baccata Huckleberry Vaccinium spp. (V. corymbosum & V. angustifolium) Blueberry V. macrocarpon & V. oxycoccos Cranberry See Smoking Pipe Made From The Burl Of Briarwood See Huckleberry & Bearberry In Rocky Mountains See Hawaiian Huckleberry Near Rim Of Kilauea Crater See Cranberries, An Interesting Shrub Of Acid Bogs Strawberry Tree: An Interesting Fruit From Europe 47. Erythroxylaceae: Coca Family Back To Alphabet Table Erythroxylum coca Coca Shrub [Leaves source of the tropane alkaloid cocaine; not to be confused with the cocoa or cacao tree (Threobroma cacao) in the Sterculiaceae.] Information About The Tropane Alkaloid Cocaine 48. Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia Family Back To Alphabet Table Croton tiglium Croton [Croton oil from seeds; it is one of the most powerful purgatives known.] Aleurites moluccana Candlenut or Kukui Nut [Seeds rich in unsaturated oil; seeds polished and used for necklaces in Hawaii.] A. fordii Tung Oil [Outstanding unsaturated oil that dries fast and leaves a glossy finish on wood.] Sapium sebiferum Chinese Tallow Tree S. biloculare Arizona Jumping Bean Sebastiana pavoniana Mexican Jumping Bean Euphorbia pulcherrima Poinsettia Hippomane mancinella Manchineel Tree [Apple-like fruits poisoned Columbus' crew on his 2nd voyage to Caribbean in 1493.] Hura crepitans Monkey Pistol or Sandbox Tree [Interesting tropical tree with exploding seed capsules.] Cnidoscolus angustidens Mala Mujer [Painful plant with stinging trichomes similar to nettle but much worse!] Euphorbia antisyphilitica Candelilla Wax [From stems.] Hevea brasiliensis Para Rubber Tree [Most important source of natural rubber.] Manihot glaziovii Ceara Rubber Tree [Lesser known New World source of rubber latex.] M. esculenta Cassava [Tapioca from storage roots.] Ricinus communis Castor Bean [Castor oil from seeds; seeds also contain the protein ricin which is more poisonous gram for gram than cyanide or rattlesnake venom; grows wild in the western U.S.] Rubber From Heavea & Manihot glaziovii See Article About The Castor Bean Shrub See Article About Mexican Jumping Beans See Mala Mujer: Plant With Stinging Trichomes Manchineel Fruit That Poisoned Columbus' Crew See The Cassava Plant: Important Root Crop See Tung Oil Tree And Candlenut (Kukui Nuts) See Photos Of Candelilla And Candelilla Wax 49. Fabaceae: Pea Family (Leguminosae) Back To Alphabet Table Legumes containing water soluble gums and natural dyes: Acacia senegal Gum Arabic [From trunk.] Astragalus spp. (incl. A. gummifer) Gum Tragacanth [Spiny "locoweeds" of Near East and Asia Minor; especially Zagros Mountains of Western Iran; valuable white gum in stems.] Astragalus membranaceus Astagalus Root or Huang Ch'i [A Chinese Herbal Remedy For Boosting The Immune System.] Ceratonia siliqua Carob Tree [Pods ground into carob flour; also the source of locust bean gum.] Indigofera tinctoria Indigo [Beautiful blue dye from leaves.] Caesalpinia echinata Brazilwood [Red dye from heartwood; source of the histological stain brazilin; wood also used for violin bows; planted on campus; major factor in colonization of Brazil by Portuguese.] Caesalpinia sappan Sappanwood [Important red dye from heartwood before aniline dyes.] Haematoxylum campechianum Logwood [Valuable red heartwood dye during 1500s & 1600s; major factor in colonization of British Honduras by England which later became Belize; source of the histological stains hematoxylin and hematein.] Pterocarpus santalinus Red Sandalwood [Blood Red Dye From The Wood.] True gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), gum arabic from Acacia senegal, gum tragacanth from Astragalus gummifera, and algin from the giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), are complex polysaccharides (made of many sugar molecules joined together) and are used as emulsifiers and thickening agents. See The Carob Tree: A Cauliflorous Species See Photos Of Logwood Tree In Central America See Photo Of Brazilwood And Its Bright Red Dye Powdered Red Sandalwood: A Bright Red Dye Photos And Information About Gum Tragacanth Astragalus Root: Popular Chinese Herbal Remedy Inga edulis Ice Cream Bean Dipteryx odorata Tonka Bean [Seeds from the egg-shaped fruits of this tropical South American tree are used as a substitute for vanilla; the seeds contain the fragrant phenolic compound coumarin which is used in the perfume industry.] Glycyrrhiza glabra Licorice [From roots.] Pachyrhizus erosus Jicama [From large taproot.] Tamarindus indicus Tamarind Medicago sativa Alfalfa Trifolium pratense and T. repens Red and White Clover Melilotus albus, M. indicus and M officinalis White, Indian and Yellow Sweet Clover [Wet or moldy sweet clover contains the anticoagulant compound dicoumarin (a double phenolic ring); dicoumarin is used in rat poison; it is formed by the union of 2 single-ring coumarin molecules; coumarin is found in fresh clover & alfalfa and produces the aroma of new mown hay.] See Tonka Beans: A Source Of Fragrant Coumarin See The Legume Fruits Of The Tamarind Tree See The Tropical American Ice Cream Bean Many species in the legume family have edible seeds (beans) and pods. The following is only a partial list of the many species, some with dozens of cultivated varieties: Phaseolus lunatus (P. limensis) Lima Bean P. vulgaris Common Bean & Kidney Bean P. coccineus Red Runner Bean Faba vulgaris Fava Bean (Broad Bean) Glycine max (G. hispida) Soybean Lens culinaris (Lens esculenta) Lentil Pisum sativum Pea Vicia faba Broad Bean Cajanus cajan Pigeon Pea [Common vegetable seen in Caribbean marketplace.] Cicer arietinum Chick Pea (Garbanzo Bean) Vigna unguiculata Black-Eyed Pea (Cowpea, Southern Pea) V. angularis Chinese Red Bean (Azuki Bean) V. umbellata Rice Bean (Red Bean) V. radiata Mung Bean Canavalia gladiata Sword Bean C. ensiformis Jack Bean Arachis hypogaea Peanut See The Red Runner Bean Of Central America An Assortment Of Nineteen Varieties Of Beans See String Bean, Sugar Snap Pea & Snow Pea Fresh Green Pods Of The Popular Fava Bean Garbanza Bean (Chick Pea) And Mung Beans See Pods & Seeds Of The Soy Bean See Large Pod & Seeds Of The Sword Bean A Subterranean Peanut Out Of The Ground See More Photos Of The Peanut Plant Note: There are many tropical leguminous genera with beautiful seeds used for necklaces and bracelets, including Mucuna, Dioclea, Entada, Abrus, Rhynchosia, Erythrina, Adenanthera, Sophora and Ormosia. One example of a decorative bean is the circassian seed (Adenanthera pavonina), a magical bean from India that is commonly used in seed necklaces. See the Wayne's Word article about seed jewelry for more information and photos. See Article About Magical Beans From India See Wayne's Word Article About Seed Jewelry Copal Resins and Balsams [Balsams are highly aromatic oleoresins.]: Copaifera demeussei South African Copaifera Balsam C. reticulata& C. officinalis Central & South American Copaifera Balsams Myroxylon balsamum Balsum-of-Peru [Used in medicines, soaps and perfumes; gathered in Central America (El Salvador) by "balsameros."] Prioria copaifera Copaiba Balsam from Central America Hymenaea courbaril West Indian Locust [Source of copal varnish & incense.] Hymenaea verrucosum East African Copal See Noteworthy Plants Article About Prioria copaifera See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Resins and Amber 50. Fagaceae: Beech Family Back To Alphabet Table Castanea dentata Chestnut C. sativa European Chestnut Fagus grandiflora Beech Lithocarpus densiflora Tanbark Oak [Bark good source of tannin; tannins unite with certain proteins, such as those in animal skins, to form a strong, flexible, resistant, insoluble substance known as leather; i.e. tannins convert animal hides into leather.] Quercus spp. Oak [Beautiful open-grain, ring porous hardwood.] Quercus suber Cork Oak [Cork obtained from thick, outer bark; planted on Palomar College campus.] See Chestnuts Inside Their Spiny Involucre See The Mature Acorns Of The Cork Oak See Article About Wood Products And Cork Flacourtiaceae: Flacourtia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dovyalis abyssinica Abyssinian Gooseberry D. caffra Kei Apple or Umkokolo D. hebecarpa Ceylon Gooseberry or Ketembilla [Note: The Florida gooseberry or tropical apricot is an artificial hybrid between D. abyssinica and D. hebecarpa.] Flacourtia cataphracta Runealma Plum F. indica Madagascar Plum or Ramontchi F. inermis Martinique Plum or Lovi-Lovi F. rukam Rukam or Indian Prune Pangium edule Buah Keluak or Kepayang [Also known as the kepayang tree of Indonesia & Malaysia; oily, hard-shelled seeds superficially resemble Brazil nuts; meaty seeds are edible after poisonous hydrocyanic acid is removed by soaking and boiling them in water; fermented seeds (called kluwak nuts) become chocolate-brown, greasy and slippery; cooked seeds are used in a number of Malaysian and Indonesian dishes.] See Photo Of Peeled & Packaged Kluwak Nuts 51. Gelidiaceae & Gracilariaceae: Agar Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Gelidium cartilagineum (and other species) Gelidium [An intertidal red alga used for agar.] Gracilaria spp. Gracilaria [Another intertidal red alga used for agar.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Agar is a phycocolloid obtained from several genera of red algae, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. Agar gels have a superior capacity for changing into a liquid when heated, and then readily cooling back into a gel. They are unsurpassed for nutrient media used for tissue culture and in bacteriology (microbiology). See Photo Of Gelidium pulcrum 52. Gigartinaceae: Gigartina Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This is a family of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Chondrus crispus Irish Moss [An intertidal red alga species used for carrageenan.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus). Agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. See Photo Of Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus) Gramineae: Grass Family See Poaceae Grossulariaceae: Gooseberry Family See Saxifragaceae 53. Guttiferae (Clusiaceae): Garcinia Family Back To Alphabet Table Mammea americana Mammee Apple Clusia rosea Pitch Apple [Interesting strangler tree resembling a strangler fig.] Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen [Considered the "queen of tropical fruits."] Garcinia dulcis [Fruit similar to mangosteen, except the fleshy fruit has a yellow interior.] Garcinia hanburyi & G. morella [A yellow dye called gamboge is obtained from the resin.] See A Mammee Apple From Island Of St. John See The Mangosteen: Queen Of Tropical Fruits A Tasty Mangosteen Relative: Garcinia dulcis See Clusia Rosea: A Strangler That Is Not A Fig 54. Hamamelidaceae: Witch Hazel Family Back To Alphabet Table Hamamelis virginiana Witch Hazel [Witch hazel oil, outstanding treatment for hemorrhoids.] Liquidambar styraciflua Sweet Gum See Foliage & Seed Capsules Of Witch Hazel Hydrophyllaceae: Waterleaf Family Back To Alphabet Table Eriodictyon californicum Yerba Santa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; leaves made into a tea and poultice to relieve colds, bronchitis, rheumatism and muscular aches & pains.] See Yerba Santa In San Diego County 55. Hypericaceae: St. John's-Wort Family Back To Alphabet Table Hypericum perforatum St. John's-wort [Flowers used as herb to treat symtoms of mild depression and mood swings; a European wildflower that is naturalized throughout North America; there are also native species of Hypericum in North America, including two species in San Diego County, California.] St. John's-Wort: An Herb To Treat Depression Illiciaceae: Star Anise Family Back To Alphabet Table Illicium verum Star Anise [A tree native to southeast Asia and grown commercially in China for its aromatic seeds and fruits; licorice flavor used in Asian cuisine and in medicines; primary ingredient of Tamiflu used to treat the dreaded avian flu of humans .] See The Unusual Fruits Of Star Anise 56. Iridaceae: Iris Family Back To Alphabet Table Crocus sativus Saffron. [Yellowish-orange dye from elongate stigmas and tips of styles; saffron contains the glycoside crocin (derived from the diterpene crocetin); 4,000 stigmas yields one ounce of dye.] See Saffron: Ground Up Autumn Crocus Stigmas 57. Juglandaceae: Walnut Family Back To Alphabet Table Juglans cinerea Butternut J. nigra Black Walnut J. regia English Walnut Carya illinoensis Pecan C. ovata Shagbark Hickory Note: The "hican" is a hybrid resulting from a cross between the pecan (Carya illinoensis) and the shagbark hickory (C. ovata). Go To Nut Photos And See Pecans In Their Husks See The Black Walnut And A Related Tiny Walnut 58. Krameriaceae: Krameria Family Back To Alphabet Table Krameria grayi and K. parvifolia Krameria [Intricately branched, thorny shrubs of the Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico; partially parasitic on roots of adjacent shrubs; spiny fruits are a tenacious hitchhiker.] See Tenacious Hitchhikers Of The Colorado Desert Labiatae: Mint Family See Lamiaceae 59. Lactobacillaceae: Lactobacillus Family Back To Alphabet Table [Also The Streptococcaceae, Propionibacteriaceae & Acetobacteraceae.] Lactobacillus acidophilus Acidophilus Milk Bacteria [This bacteria converts lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid, thus making it more digestible to lactose intolerant people.] L. bulgaricus Yogurt Bacteria [A bacteria used in most yogurt and some cheese cultures; L. delbrueckii is also listed for yogurt.] L. casei Cheese Bacteria [Promote the formation of cheese due to their action on milk protein (casein).] L. plantarum Pickle Bacteria. [A lactic acid bacteria used in vegetable fermentations to produce pickles and fermented cabbage called sauerkraut.] Streptococcus thermophilus in the Streptococcaceae is another yogurt-forming bacteria. Streptococcus species are also used in the production of sour cream, butter, buttermilk and cheese. The propionic acid which produces the odor and flavor of Swiss cheese comes from Propionibacterium freudenreichii ssp. shermanii of the Propionibacteriaceae. The unique flavor and odor of limburger cheese is produced by Brevibacterium linens of the Brevibacteriaceae. And the acetic acid of vinegar is produced by vinegar bacteria (Acetobacter aceti) of the Acetobacteraceae. 60. Lamiaceae: Mint Family (Labiatae) Back To Alphabet Table Lavandula officinalis (L. angustifolia ssp. angustifolia) Lavender Marrubium vulgare Horehound [Common in local hills near Palomar College.] Melissa officinalis Balm or Lemon Balm [Leaves used as a flavoring for salads, soups and tea.] Mentha piperita Peppermint M. spicata Spearmint [Wild along San Luis Rey River Of San Diego County.] Monarda didyma Bee Balm or Bergamot [Dried leaves and flowers used to make an aromatic tea; other species also used, including M. citriodora (lemon bee balm or lemon bergamot) and M. austromontana (Mexican bergamot); Note: The bergamot used in Earl Gray tea comes from Citrus bergamia (Rutaceae).] Nepeta cataria Catnip Origanum vulgare Oregano O. majorana Marjoram Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary [Planted on campus.] Salvia officinalis Sage [Also S. clevelandii in San Diego County.] S. columbariae Chia [Common in local hills.] Thymus vulgaris Thyme Ocimum basilicum Basil Satureja hortensis Savory Mesona chinensis Jellywort [Plants are boiled in water and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] See The Delicious Cooking Herb Called Rosemary See Photographs Of Sages (Salvia) In California Lavender: Source Of Lavender Oil For Perfumes Catnip: An Interesting Herb That Drives Cats Crazy Lemon Balm: A Fragrant Herb Used As A Flavoring Basil: A Fragrant Herb That Enhances Tomatoes Horehound: An Herb Used To Make A Unique Candy See Grass Jelly From Jellywort (Mesona chinensis) 61. Laminariaceae & Lessoniaceae: Kelp Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of brown algae in the Division Phaeophyta: Macrocystis pyrifera Giant Kelp [A large kelp or seaweed growing in the kelp beds just beyond the surf zone along the coast of southern California; the large stipes and blades of this species are harvested by kelp cutters and are an important source of algin.] Laminaria spp. Kelp. [Another species of brown alga that commonly grows in the intertidal zone. This species is harvested for food and algin.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Alginates (also called algin) are obtained from species of Laminaria and another macroscopic brown algae called giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) that grows along the coast of southern California. In some fast food restaurants, shakes without the word "milk" were thickened with algin. For this reason they were called shakes rather than milk shakes. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), and agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Note: some species of brown algae kelp or seaweed are cooked and used for soups in Japan. Pelagophycus: A Giant Kelp Off The Coast Of San Diego See Giant Bladder Kelp: The Primary Source Of Algin See Dried Kelp (Laminaria) Used For Food In Japan 62. Lauraceae: Laurel Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinnamomum camphora Camphor Tree [Camphor oil from wood, twigs & leaves.] C. zeylanicum Cinnamon [From bark.] Laurus nobilis Sweet Bay Persea americana Avocado or Alligator Pear Sassafras albidum Sassafras [Spicy root bark used in teas, medicines and carbonated beverages, including some recipes for root beer; one of the primary flavorings of old-fashioned root beer is sarsaparilla from the roots of Smilax officinalis, a member of the lily family; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings.] Umbellularia californica California Bay Tree or Oregon Myrtle See Leaves & Fruit Of California Bay Tree See The Trunk Of A large Cinnamon Tree Branches & Products From Camphor Tree See The Autumn Foliage Of Sassafras Tree See Delicious Fruits Of The Avocado Tree Lecanoraceae & Umbilicariaceae: Edible Rock Lichens Back To Alphabet Table Lecanora esculenta Schirsad [Also thought to be the Biblical "mana" by some scholars.] Umbilicaria phaea Rock Tripe [Several species from the northern latitudes are eaten.] Rock lichens have played an important role in the survival of native people and explorers. In addition to providing food for their animals, Indians, Eskimos and Laplanders eat certain lichens. Leafy lichens called rock tripes (Umbilicaria) are eaten raw and are boiled into a thick, mucilaginous soup. Rock tripes are also added to salads or deep fried, and are considered a delicacy in Japan. Throughout history, peasants of Persia have avoided mass starvation by eating the abundant crustose rock lichen Lecanora esculenta. This lichen readily becomes detached in small patches and is blown off the rocks by wind, often accumulating in crevices and under shrubs. It is mixed with meal and made into a kind of bread called "schirsad" in Turkey and northern Iran. In fact, some biblical scholars think this lichen may have been the "manna" which saved the starving Israelites during their exodus from Egypt. Another source of manna in the arid Middle East desert is the dried sap exudate from several species of trees and shrubs inhabiting this region. Rock Tripes Growing On Granite Boulder Crustose Rock Lichens & Desert Varnish 63. Lecythidaceae: Lecythis Family Back To Alphabet Table Bertholletia excelsa Brazil Nut [A giant tree of the Amazon rain forest in South America; the hard brown seeds are produced in large, thick-walled capsules weighing up to 5 pounds; seeds contain 65% to 70% unsaturated fat and literally burn like a candle.] Lecythis ollaria Paradise Nut [Another giant rain forest tree with seeds produced in a thick, woody, potlike capsule.] Couroupita guianensis Cannonball Tree [Large, fragrant, bat-pollinated blossoms develop on woody stalks that push out of the main trunk; the flowers give rise to cannonball-like fruits up to 8 inches in diameter that remain attached to the tangled flower stalks.] See Photos Of Brazil Nuts & Their Pod See Photo Of The Amazing Paradise Nut See Photo Of Remarkable Cannonball Tree Leguminosae: Pea Family See Fabaceae 64. Lemnaceae: Duckweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Lemna spp. Duckweed [Used for waste water treatment; also food for livestock and fish (aquaculture); important organisms in freshwater ecosystems.] Wolffia spp. Watermeal [Potential high protein food source for people; does not contain calcium oxalate crystals as in Lemna; W. globosa is khai-nam (water-eggs) of Thailand, eaten by people as high protein supplement to their diet.] See Mr. Wolffia's On-Line Lemnaceae Home Page Lichen Dyes and Perfumes See Roccellaceae 65. Liliaceae: Lily Family Back To Alphabet Table Aloe vera (A. barbadensis) Aloe [Gelatinous glycoside called aloin from succulent leaves used in soothing lotions, hemorrhoidal salves and shampoos.] Asparagus officinalis Asparagus [Delicious, edible sprouting stems; stems contain methyl mercaptans which cause significant odor in urine when broken down by some people; genus also includes the asparagus "ferns" used in landscaping.] Chlorogalum pomeridianum Soap Plant [In local hills.] Colchicum autumnale Autumn Crocus [Alkaloid colchicine from the bulblike corms.] Smilax officinalis and other tropical American species. Sarsaparilla. [Flavoring from dried roots widely used in carbonated beverages and medicines; along with wintergreen (and sometimes ginger) this was the primary flavoring used in the original recipes for old-fashioned root beer; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings; several species of this trailing perennial herb are native throughout North America.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Soap Lilies See Garden Asparagus Plants Growing On Maui See Autumn Crocus: The Source Of Colchicine See An African Species Of Aloe (A. kedongensis) 66. Linaceae: Flax Family Back To Alphabet Table Linum usitatissimum Flax [Valuable stem fibers (bast fibers) used for linen; also source of linseed oil from seeds.] See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 67. Loganiaceae: Logania Family Back To Alphabet Table Buddleia davidii Butterfly Bush [Species of Buddleia are commonly grown as ornamentals for their showy clusters of blue and purple flowers; the fragrant flowers attract a variety of colorful adult butterflies.] Fagraea berteroana [Native tree in Australia and Pacific Islands; Fragrant flowers used in perfumes and leis.] Strychnos nux-vomica Strychnine Tree [Alkaloid strychnine from seeds.] S. toxifera [One of the species containing a form of the alkaloid curarine which is used as an arrow poison.] Note: Curare also obtained from bark and stems of Chondrodendron tomentosum (Menispermaceae). This is the source of curare for the Botany 115 Plant Family Exam #4. See Article About The Beautiful Butterfy Bush See Leaves and Fruit of Fagraea berteroana 68. Malpighiaceae: Malpighigia Family Back To Alphabet Table Malpighia glabra Barbados Cherry [Bright red, cherry-like fruits often seen at Caribbean marketplace.] 69. Malvaceae: Mallow Family Back To Alphabet Table Gossypium spp. Cotton [Epidermal hairs on seeds; different varieties have different lengths of hairs or staple; fruit called a boll; also cottonseed oil; although called a fiber, cotton is not derived from fiber cells; the two primary old world species are the diploids G. arboreum and G. herbaceum while the main domesticated New World species are the tetraploids G. barbadense and G. hirsutum.] Hibiscus cannabinus Kenaf or Gambo Hemp [Yields stem fibers 5 to 10 ft. long.] H. tiliaceus Beach Hibiscus [Useful source of bast fibers for cordage.] H. esculentus (Abelmoschus esculentus) Okra [This vegetable is actually a fruit.] H. sabdariffa Sorrel and Roselle [Reddish capsules harvested at Christmas time in Dominica for a popular drink; roselle fibers similar to kenaf.] Malva sylvestris & possibly M. pseudolavatera High Mallow [The tender young leaves are eaten in salads and cooked like spinach; the purple flowers yield a natural coloring for drinks and herbal teas; the common weed called cheeseweed (M. parviflora) is also cooked and eaten as a vegetable.] Thespesia populnea Milo or Beach Hibiscus [Beautiful dark wood used for carvings and bowls.] See A Cotton Boll--Source Of Cotton Fibers See Beach Hibiscus Used For Its Bast Fibers See A Sorrel Plant In Full Bloom See Sorrel At Marketplace In Dominica See Milo: A Beautiful Polynesian Hardwood See Okra: A Vegetable That Is Also A Fruit See High Mallow (Malva pseudolavatera) 70. Marantiaceae: Arrowroot Family Back To Alphabet Table Maranta arundinacea West Indian Arrowroot [Starchy rhizomes used for food.] Powdered Caribbean Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) See Article About Another Arrowroot (Canna edulis) 71. Martyniaceae: Martynia Family Back To Alphabet Table Proboscidea parviflora and other spp. Devil's Claws [Seed capsules used for food and in North American Indian basketry.] See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Devil's Claws 72. Meliaceae: Mahogany Family Back To Alphabet Table Azadirachta india Neem Tree [Oil from seeds used in soaps, shampoos, skin care; leaves used in Indian foods.] Melia azedarach Chinaberry Tree [Commonly cultivated in southern California.] Swietenia macrophylla Honduras Mahogany S. mahogani West Indian Mahogany [Found in Florida Keys.] Sandoricum koetjape Santol or Kechapi [Malaysian tree with yellowish or reddish-brown, juicy fruits that smell like ripe peaches.] See Photo Of The Seldom-Seen Fruit Of Sandoricum koetjape 73. Menispermaceae: Moonseed Family Back To Alphabet Table Chondodendron tomentosum Curare [A deadly extract from the bark and stems of this Amazonian vine is used to coat the darts of blowguns.] Note: Extracts from species of Strychnos, including S. toxifera of the logania family (Loganiaceae), are also used for curare. Another potent alkaloid used to coat the darts of South American blowguns comes from the skin of poison dart frogs of the family Dendrobatidae. See The Amazonian Curare Vine See Colorful Poison Dart Frogs 74. Moraceae: Mulberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Artocarpus altilis (A. communis) Breadfruit A. heterophyllus Jackfruit Castilla elastica Panama Rubber Ficus carica Edible Fig [Hundreds of cultivated varieties, some requiring a pollinator wasp (incl. 'Smyrna' & 'Calimyrna') and some which are parthenocarpic, incl 'Mission' and 'Kadota'.] Ficus pumila Creeping Fig [Juice from the syconia is cooked and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] F. elastica India Rubber Tree F. religiosa [One of the trees inhabited by lac insect that produces shellac.] Broussonetia papyrifera Paper Mulberry [In Palomar College Arboretum; the bark is also used for tapa cloth.] Brosimum utile & B. alicastrum Milk Tree or Palo de Vaca [In Costa Rica, the milky sap is used by locals as a substitute for cream in their coffee.] Maclura pomifera Osage Orange [Hardest of all native hardwoods of eastern U.S.] Morus spp. Mulberry [Some with edible fruits including the black mulberry (M. nigra); M. alba primary food for silkworm.] Native to the Indo-Malaysian region, the jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is grown throughout the tropics for its pulpy, edible fruits which may reach nearly 3 feet (1 m) in length and weigh up to 75 pounds (34 kg). Jackfruit and its close relative, breadfruit (A. altilis), belong to the diverse Mulberry Family (Moraceae). You have probably heard of the story of Captain Bligh, who tried to bring a load of breadfruit cuttings from Tahiti to the Caribbean in 1789 aboard the H.M.S. Bounty. Enchanted with the Tahitian way of life, his crew mutinied on the voyage. See Photo Of An Amazing Breadfruit Tree In Tahiti See Photo Of An Amazing Jackfruit Tree In Hawaii See Comparison Photo Of A Breadfruit And A Jackfruit See Photo Of The Remarkable Fruit Of Osage Orange See Photograph Of The Very Delicious Black Mulberry Flowers & Multiple Fruit Of The Pakistan Mulberry Silk From A Caterpillar That Eats Mulberry Leaves Photograph Of The Milk Tree (Brosimum) In Costa Rica The Creeping Fig--One Of The Sources Of Grass Jelly Read About Delicious, Wasp-Pollinated Calimyrna Figs Photo Of Seed Lac: Resinous Excretion Of Lac Insect Moringaceae: Moringa Family Back To Alphabet Table Moringa oleifera (M. pterygosperma) Horseradish Tree [This tree is called "malungay" in Asian countries; a small, soft-wooded tree native to India but widely cultivated throughout the tropics; the long beanlike pods are used in soups and curries, and are made into pickles; the young, tender, mustard-favored leaves are eaten raw in salads, cooked as potherbs and placed in soups and curries; even the oily seeds are roasted or fried and apparently taste like peanuts; the pungent root is used as a substitute for the true horseradish of the mustard family or Brassicaceae.] See Two Trees Related To The Horseradish Tree 75. Musaceae: Banana Family Back To Alphabet Table Musa x paradisiaca (M. sapientum) Common Banana [A triploid, seedless hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.] M. acuminata Plantain M. textilis Manila hemp or Abaca [Important leaf fiber; source of manilla rope.] Genetics Of Triploid Seedless Banana See Article About Plant Textile Fibers See Photo Of The Manila Hemp Plant 76. Myristicaceae: Nutmeg Family Back To Alphabet Table Myristica fragrans Nutmeg [Large seed is the nutmeg of commerce; reddish outer layer called aril is the source of the spice known as mace.] See Nutmeg Fruit: The Source Of Two Spices 77. Myrtaceae: Myrtle Family Back To Alphabet Table Eucalyptus camaldulensis Red Gum [Source of gum kino, a phenolic compound.] E. globulus Blue Gum [Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) from leaves.] Pimenta dioica Allspice or Pimento [From dried unripe fruits.] Pimenta racemosa Bay Rum Tree [Essential oil from leaves used in cologne.] Psidium guajava Guava [Fruit rich in vitamins A, B, and C.] P. cattleianum Strawberry Guava [Planted on campus.] Feijoa sellowiana Pineapple Guava [Planted on Campus.] Syzygium (Eugenia) aromaticum Clove [From unopened flower buds.] Syzygium (Eugenia) malaccensis Mountain or Malay Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) jambos Malayan Rose Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) paniculatum Australian Brush Cherry Eugenia uniflora Surinam Cherry Myrciaria cauliflora Jaboticaba [Cauliflorous tree from Brazil with purple, grapelike berries that develop from the trunk and limbs.] Leptospermum scoparium New Zealand Tea Plant [Leaves brewed into a tea to provide vitamin C for Captain Cook's crew.] See Unusual Cauliflorous Berries Of Jaboticaba Tree See Tropical Allspice Berries And Bay Rum Tree See Cloves: Flower Buds From The Spice Islands See Guava, Strawberry Guava & Pineapple Guava Fruits See The Fruit And Flower Of Rose Apple Or Malabar Plum See The Fruit Of The Mountain Apple Or Malay Apple See The Fruit Of The South American Surinam Cherry See The Colorful, Insipid Fruits Of Australian Brush Cherry See New Zealand Tea Plant Used By Captain Cook's Crew The name "gum" can be traced back to the voyage of Captain James Cook to the South Pacific in 1770. Captain Cook discovered the east coast of Australia, called New Holland at that time. In one harbor, the ship's naturalists found so many unusual and beautiful plants that they named it Botany Bay. Eight years later, a fleet of eleven English ships reached Botany Bay with 1,530 people, 736 of them convicts. This marked the establishment of England's most important prison camp of the nineteenth century, and the European settlement of a vast land called Australia. The actual discovery of the genus Eucalyptus is credited to the ship's botanist, Joseph Banks (later Sir Joseph Banks). One of the newly discovered species "red bloodwood" (E. gummifera) had a reddish gum exuding from its trunk, and the naturalists called it a "gum tree." Other species of eucalyptus with persistent bark fall into five additional groups, called ironbarks (bark hard and deeply fissured), peppermint barks (bark finely fibrous), stringy barks (bark long and fibrous), boxes (bark rough and fibrous), and bloodwoods (bark rough, cracked and scaly on trunk and large limbs). Another group of large trees, called ashes, have rough bark on the trunk but smoother bark on the branches. In fact, the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) rivals the California redwoods as the world's tallest trees. With about 500 described species dominating more than 80 percent of Australia's forests, it is convenient to categorize them within different groups based upon their bark type. In fact, one of the most striking species with thick, deeply furrowed, persistent black bark is the red ironbark (E. sideroxylon), commonly planted at Palomar College. In addition to tree forms, there are numerous drought resistant, shrubby eucalyptus called mallees. Some of these resprout from subterranean lignotubers like many of our chaparral shrubs. One of these (Eucalyptus macrocarpa) produces spectacular red blossoms and the largest seed capsules of any eucalyptus. Some mallees of parched desert regions store water in their roots, a fact well-known to Australian aborigines. See Spectacular Eucalyptus Macrocarpa in Full Bloom See The Fire-Adapted Lignotuber of a Chaparral Shrub See Photos Of Eucalyptus In Article About Hardwoods Chemically the eucalyptus "gums" are rich in tannins (kinotannic acid) and are similar to another phenolic compound called catechu. They are known in the trade as kinos or gum kinos and are used as tannins to convert animal hide into leather. One of the main Australian sources of kino is the common red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), naturalized throughout San Diego County. Kino gums are also used medicinally as astringents to relieve throat irritation, dysentery and diarrhoea. True polysaccharide gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), and chicle, a terpene gum from the latex sap of the sapodilla tree (Achras zapota), are chemically quite different. They all probably serve to seal off wounds and prevent bacterial and fungal infections. Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) is a volatile terpene compound (called an essential oil) which is distilled from the leaves of several species. It is used for flavorings, dentifrices, cough drops, and for the synthesis of menthol. The lemony fragrance from the leaves of lemon-scented gum (E. citriodora) is due to another volatile terpene called citronellal. One of the reasons that few plants will grow well beneath naturalized gum forests in southern California is that volatile terpenes from fallen leaves are leached into the soil, thereby inhibiting seed germination and growth of competing species. The wood of different species of eucalyptus varies considerably, from wood as soft as pines to very hard, close-grained wood as dense as oak and hickory. Eucalypts constitute most of the forest vegetation of Australia and are one of the most important hardwood timber resources in the world. There are a number of species that provide excellent lumber for furniture, wood-carving and construction, including karri (E. diversicolor), spotted gum (E. maculata), blackbutt (E. pilularis), and jarrah (E. marginata). In fact, jarrah is stronger and more durable than oak and resistant to termites and marine borers. During the late 1800s and early 1900s several species of gums (including E. camaldulensis and E. globulus) were extensively planted in California for lumber, firewood, windbreaks and railroad ties. Although the species selected for extensive plantings grew into forests very rapidly, the wood proved very undesirable for lumber and railroad ties because of extensive splitting during the drying process. Today, these extensive forests have forever changed the character of coastal southern and central California. Nelumbonaceae: Water Lotus Family Back To Alphabet Table Nelumbo nucifera Asian Water Lotus [The seeds are eaten raw and roasted; the thick, starchy rhizomes are boiled, stir-fried and pickled.] See Flowers, Receptacle & Seeds Of Water Lotus Nostocaceae: Nostoc Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Nostoc commune Star Jelly [A freshwater cyanobacterium that is eaten raw, dried, stir-fried and in soups. It is sold dried in Asian markets.] Nostoc flagelliforme Fat Choy or Fa Cai [A filamentous, terestrial cyanobacterium of northern and northwestern China; the Cantonese and Mandarin names mean "hair vegetable" because the hair-like strands resemble black hair when dry.] More Information About Fat Choy See Nostoc Balls In A Vernal Pool 78. Nyctaginaceae: Four O-Clock Family Back To Alphabet Table Bougainvillea glabra Bougainvillea Mirabilis laevis Wild Four O'Clock 79. Oleaceae: Olive Family Back To Alphabet Table Fraxinus spp. Ash [Beautiful light open-grain wood.] Jasminum officinale Jasmine [From flowers, used for perfume & teas.] Olea europaea Olive [Native to the Mediterranean region; fresh olives (drupes) are extremely bitter due to oleuropein, a phenolic glucoside; olives soaked in lye (sodium hydroxide) to remove the bitter oleuropein; olives picked green are oxidized in air to produce black color; green olives kept submerged will retain green color; pitted green olives often stuffed with pimento, a bright red Capsicum cultivar; unlike most unsaturated plant oils which come from seeds, monounsaturated olive oil is obtained from the pulp or mesocarp of the fruit; virgin olive oil is obtained from the 1st pressing.] Syringa vulgaris Lilac [Not the same as California lilac or Ceanothus.] Read About Monounsaturated Olive Oil See Canned & Mature Olives On Branch 80. Orchidaceae: Orchid Family Back To Alphabet Table Vanilla planifolia (V. fragrans) Vanilla [From fermented and dried seed capsules called vanilla beans.] V. pompona West Indian Vanilla Note: Imitation vanilla flavorings sold in markets are synthetic vanillin containing artificial food coloring & preservatives; vanillin is a phenolic compound derived from lignin. Photos & Information About The Vanilla Orchid Oscillatoriaceae: Oscillatoria Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Spirulina platensis Spirulina [A cyanobacterium found in alkaline and saline water; it is dried into a powder and sold as a nutritious, high protein food supplement.] 81. Oxalidaceae: Oxalis Family Back To Alphabet Table Averrhoa carambola Carambola [An elongate, angular fruit composed of 5 carpels with a star-shaped cross section; the tartness is due to calcium oxalate crystals in the flesh which dissolve in the saliva forming oxalic acid.] Averrhoa bilimbi Cucumber Tree [An interesting Malayan tree with edible cauliflorous fruits.] Oxalis albicans ssp. californica, O. corniculata ssp. corniculata, and O. cernua Oxalis or Sour Grass [Native and naturalized species on the Palomar College campus.] See Photo Of The Amazing Carambola Fruit See Photo Of The Cauliflorous Cucumber Tree Palmaceae: Palm Family See Arecaceae Palmae: Palm Family See Arecaceae 82. Pandanaceae: Pandanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Pandanus tectorius Pandanus [Polynesian plant resembling a palm with prop roots; leaves used for baskets, floor coverings, mats and thatching for houses; woody, seed-bearing sections (containing edible seeds) used for necklaces and leis.] See Photos Of Remarkable Pandanus Plant 83. Papaveraceae: Poppy Family Back To Alphabet Table Papaver somniferum Opium Poppy [Source of isoquinoline alkaloids codeine, morphine, & diacetylmorphine (heroin); also poppy seeds.] See Opium Poppy: Source Of Narcotics & Poppy Seeds 84. Passifloraceae: Passionflower Family Back To Alphabet Table Passiflora edulis, ligularis, & quadrangularis [Granadilla or passion fruit used in Hawaiian Punch; passion fruit vines planted on campus.] See The Fruit & Blossom Of Passionflower Pedaliaceae: Pedalium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sesamum indicum Sesame [Herb with oil-rich seeds; tasty seeds sprinkled on breads, cakes, cookies and candies.] See Flower & Seeds Of Sesame Plant Phallaceae: Stinkhorn Fungus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dictyophora indusiata Basket Stinkhorn or Bamboo Mushroom [A tropical stinkhorn fungus with a lacy, netlike veil that hangs down from the phalluslike head; dried stinkhorns are packaged and sold in Asian markets; they are cooked in water and eaten in vegetarian dishes.] See Photos Of The Stinkhorn Fungus See Photo Of The Basket Stinkhorn 85. Phytolaccaceae: Pokeweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Phytolacca americana Pokeweed or Poke Salet [Native American weed or potherb; the young leaves are cooked and eaten like spinach.] See Pokeweed And Closely Related Ombu Tree Pittosporaceae: Pittosporum Family Back To Alphabet Table Billardiera cymosa Sweet Appleberry [Native to Australia; fruits eaten by Aborigines.] Billardiera longiflora Purple Appleberry [Native to Australia; evergreen climbing shrub.] Billardiera scandens Appleberry [Native to Australia; edible fruit used in baked pastries.] 86. Pinaceae: Pine Family Back To Alphabet Table [An extremely important family for lumber and wood distillation products.] Abies balsamea Canada Balsam [Oleoresin from bark used as a mounting medium for microscope work.] Other species of Abies Fir [Used for boxes, crates, and Christmas trees.] Picea spp. Spruce. [Wood used for pulpwood, boxes, etc. Because it is resonant it is much used for sounding boards of pianos and the bodies of violins and similar instruments; Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is used for boats, oars, and other products; spruce gum comes from the sapwood of red spruce (P. rubens); very beautiful conifers.] Pinus spp. Pines. [Economically important lumber trees.] Pines are very important lumber trees, e.g. eastern white pine (P. strobus), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa); raw turpentines are oleoresins (liquid resins containing essential oils) exuded as pitch; "spirits" of turpentine from distilled pitch; rosin is left after the volatile "spirits of turpentine" are removed; most raw turpentine from longleaf pine (P. palustris), loblolly pine (P. taeda) and slash pine (P. elliottii); slash pine also used in pulpwood industry for making paper; European sources of turpentines include cluster pine (P. pinaster) and Scotch pine (P. sylvestris). Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir [Most important timber tree in U.S.; common type of wood (plywood and 2 X 4's) sold at lumber yards.] Tsuga spp. Hemlock (e.g. T. canadensis) [Also used for lumber, etc; bark is chief domestic source of tannin in U.S.] Larix spp. Larch [Wood used for building construction, fences, etc.] Other wood distillation products from pine family (mostly pines) is wood alcohol (methanol); however, hardwood angiosperms are the main source. Also pine nuts from the following species of Pinyon Pines: P. monophylla, P. edulis, and P. quadrifolia. Other native California pines: P. sabiniana (digger pine), P. coulteri (Coulter pine), P. torreyana (Torrey pine). Pignolia Nuts from Italian Stone Pine (P. pinea) also planted on Palomar College campus. See Article About Wood & Wood Products See Images Of Spruce & Uses By Native People See Images Of Larch (Larix), A Deciduous Conifer Photos Of Resins & Incenses From Plants 87. Piperaceae: Pepper Family Back To Alphabet Table Piper nigrum Black Pepper [The dried, black, seed-bearing berries are the source of "fresh ground pepper."] Piper methysticum Kava Kava [Drink made from roots used in Polynesian religious and social life; a popular herb sold throughout the world as a mild sedative and tranquilizer.] See Photo Of Fresh And Dried Black Peppers. See Photo Of The Amazing Kava Kava Plant. Plantaginaceae: Plantain Family Back To Alphabet Table Plantago spp. Plantain or Psyllium [The thickening and swelling of soluble fiber extracts such as Metamucil(R) and Hydrocil(R) involves imbibition. These plant products contain a mucilaginous gum derived from the husks of psyllium seeds (Plantago psyllium and P. ovata). Psyllium powder readily absorbs water and forms a smooth bulky mass that moves through the intestinal tract. Insoluble fiber comes from the indigestible cellulose cell walls of fruits and vegetables. Both types of fiber are beneficial in maintaining a healthy colon, particularly in older adults with diverticulosis.] See Close-up Photo Of Fresh Plantain Seeds 88. Poaceae: Grass Family (Gramineae) Back To Alphabet Table This Is A Very Important Family For People And Herbivorous Animals! 1. Food for people and livestock: Rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale cereale), oats (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), corn or maize (Zea mays), teosinte (Zea mexicana) the ancestor of corn (madre de maiz); sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and many other species; also bamboo shoots used in Chinese and Cantonese foods. Rye (Secale cereale) is a diploid plant (2n) composed of 2 sets of chromosomes (DD), each set with 7 chromosomes (D=7). [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Therefore, the diploid number, or number of chromosomes in the rye sporophyte (DD), is 14. Bread wheat is a hexaploid (6n) composed of 6 sets of chromosomes (AA, BB & CC), each set with 7 chromosomes (A=7, B=7, C=7). Therefore, the number of chromosomes in the wheat hexaploid sporophyte (AABBCC) is 42. Triticale (Triticosecale) is a bigeneric hybrid between wheat (Triticum aestivum n=21) and rye (Secale cereale n=7). The resulting hybrid (ABCD) contains one set of rye chromosomes (D) and 3 sets of wheat chromosomes (ABC), a total of 28 chromosomes (7 + 21). It is sterile because the rye (D) set has no homologous set to pair up with during synapsis. This sterile hybrid seedling is treated with colchicine to produce a plant with twice as many chromosomes (i.e. 2A's, 2B's, 2C's and 2 D's), a total of 56. The fertile hybrid is an octoploid (8n) because it contains 8 sets of chromosomes. The diploid rye plant (DD) can also be crossed with tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum AABB) to produce a sterile triploid hybrid with 3 sets of chromosomes (ABD). This hybrid is treated with colchicine to produce a fertile hexaploid (6n) version of triticale (AABBDD). Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ) is derived from wild emmer wheat of Syria. Emmer wheat is a tetraploid hybrid (4n=28) between einkorn wheat (T. monococcum or a relative) and a grass similar to the present-day goat grass (T. speltoides = Aegilops speltoides); or possibly T. longissima or T searsii. The original diploid (2n=14) emmer wheat was probably sterile because it contained only 2 sets of chromosomes, one from the einkorn parent (n=7) and one from the goat grass parent (n=7). Through a natural doubling of the chromosomes, a fertile tetraploid emmer wheat with 4 sets of chromosomes was produced. A mutation in the tetraploid emmer wheat, causing the bracts (glumes) enclosing the grain to break away readily, gave rise to the tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum or T. turgidum var. durum). The readily detachable grain makes the separation of the grain from the chaff relatively easy and is why durum wheat is called a "free-thrashing" type of wheat. Tetraploid wheat also contains two proteins that combine to form a tenacious complex called gluten. Because of gluten, the wheat flour becomes elastic when mixed with water and kneaded, and when yeast is added, it rises into firm loaves. Yeast cells in the dough undergo fermentation and release carbon dioxide which becomes trapped in the glutinous protein mass. Baking "sets" the dough by drying the starch and denaturing the gluten protein. As the dough bakes, the carbon dioxide gas expands into larger bubbles, thus producing the porous, spongy texture of bread. Corn does not make good loaves of bread because it lacks gliadin, one of the key proteins of gluten. Consequently, corn bread crumbles and falls apart easily. See Photo Comparison Of Corn Bread & Wheat Bread Bread wheat (T. aestivum) is also a free-thrashing type of wheat. It is a hexaploid (6n) hybrid, four sets from an emmer wheat parent and two additional sets from a wild, weedy species (T. tauschii = Aegilops squarrosa). The endosperm of this hybrid wheat is especially high in protein and surpasses other wheats for bread making. 2. Main source of sugar (sucrose): Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum). 3. Alcoholic Beverages: a. Beer. Malt sugar (maltose) from germinating barley; starch inside grains converted into maltose. b. Sake. Made from fermented rice. c. Other distilled beverages. Whiskey made from maize, rye, etc.; bourbon made primarily from maize; scotch made from barley malt; vodka made from wheat; rum is made from sugar cane; gin is made from barley malt and rye, and flavored with oil of juniper; brandy is distilled from wine or other fruit juices (it may be 65 to 70 percent alcohol or 130 to 140 proof; some German whiskies are made from potatoes. 4. Various types of timber bamboo used for construction and scaffolding: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, etc. 5. Oil of Citronella: From leaves of Cymbopogon nardus. 6. Job's Tears (Coix lacryma-job) [A fascinating grass used for bead jewelry.] Job's Tears, Teosinte, And Indian Corn See Broomcorn: A Variety Of Sorghum See Sorghum Or Milo (Sorghum bicolor) See Photos Of Important Cereal Grasses Bamboo: Economically Valuable Giant Grasses See Sugar Cane On The Island Of Kauai 89. Polygalaceae: Milkwort Family Back To Alphabet Table Polygala senega Senega Snakeroot [Drug senega from dried roots.] 90. Polygonaceae: Buckwheat Family Back To Alphabet Table Fagopyrum sagittatum Buckwheat [Flour from achenes.] Eriogoum Wild Buckwheat [A large genus of shrubs, annuals and perennials in California; one of the largest genera in California with over 112 different species; rivaled in size (in California) only by the genus Carex.] Coccoloba uvifera Sea Grape [A spawling shrub or small tree along the shores of Caribbean islands; grapelike clusters of fruits noted by Columbus on his first voyage to the New World.] Rheum rhaponticum Rhubarb [Eat petioles (leaf stalks) only because leaf blades contain high levels of toxic oxalates.] Rumex hymenosepalus Wild Rhubarb [Wild in several coastal riverbeds, such as the San Dieguito Riverbed); also a tanning material from roots called canaigre containing about 30% tannin.] A Sea Grape On The Caribbean Shore Costa Rica See The Edible Petioles (Leaf Stalks) Of Rhubarb See Nutritious Achenes Of The Buckwheat Family 91. Portulacaceae: Purslane Family Back To Alphabet Table Portulaca oleracea Purslane [Common prostrate weed with edible, succulent leaves and stems; a C-4 plant, grows rapidly during hot summr months in southern California.] Montia perfoliata (Claytonia perfoliata) Miner's Lettuce [Common native plant in California; leaves and stems used in salads; other weedy species in this family used as pot herbs.] Purslane: A Delicious Pot Herb And Classic C-4 Plant 92. Proteaceae: Protea Family Back To Alphabet Table Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla Queensland or Macadamia nut [In Palomar College Arboretum.] Banksia and Hakea [Drought resistent shrubs planted on Palomar College campus.] See Helicopter Seeds of Banksia and Hakea See Macadamia Nuts In Their Husks Pseudomonadaceae: Pseudomonas Family Back To Alphabet Table Xanthomonas campestris Xanthan Bacteria [Xanthan gum is produced by fermenting corn sugar with this bacteria; the bacteria produce xanthan as part of their cell walls; xanthan gum is used in many food products, including salad dressings and low cholesterol egg substitutes made from egg whites and vegetable gums.] Pteridacaceae: Bracken Fern Family Back To Alphabet Table Pteris ensiformis Hoko-shida or Sword Brake [In Asian countries the young, uncurling fronds (called fiddleheads) are cooked and eaten with rice or other vegetables.] Pteridium aquilinum Braken Fern [Another species with edible fiddleheads; in San Diego County the gathering of fiddleheads is strictly prohibited because local populations of bracken fern could be decimated.] Bracken Fern Fiddlehead In San Diego County 93. Punicaceae: Pomegranate Family Back To Alphabet Table Punica granatum Pomegranate See A Ripe Pomegranate Fruit No Families With Q Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 94. Resedaceae: Mignonette Family Back To Alphabet Table Reseda luteola Dyer's Weld According to the textbook for this course Plants In Our World by B. B. Simpson and M. C. Ogarzaly (1995), woad was one of the dyes used to make the green outfits worn by Robin Hood's men deep in Sherwood forest. Their clothing was dipped in a blue dye bath of woad, and then in a bath of yellow weld from the leaves of Reseda luteola, a member of the mignonette family (Resedaceae). The mixture of blue and yellow produced the characteristic green color associated with England's legendary bandit who robbed from the rich and gave to the poor. 95. Rhamnaceae: Buckthorn Family Back To Alphabet Table Rhamnus purshiana Cascara Sagrada [Laxative cascara from bark.] Ziziphus jujuba Jujube [Small fleshy drupe; also one of the trees inhabited by the lac insect, a source of shellac.] See Jujube Fruits & California Desert Jujube Photo Of Seed Lac: Excretion Of Lac Insect 96. Roccellaceae: Rocella Family Back To Alphabet Table Roccella tinctoria Roccella [The thallus of this lichen contains phenolic acids which serve as a purple-red dye; orcein, a purple-red chromosomal stain found in every microbiology laboratory, is derived from this lichen species.] Lichen acids were the source of important dyes for cotton and wool in medieval Europe. Two purple and red dyes, orchil and cudbear, were obtained from the lichens Roccella and Ochrolechia. Lichen dyes were dissolved in human urine, and the yarns were immersed in this mixture. Ammonia salts in the urine functioned as mordants to make the dyes permanent. Pine lichen or wolf moss (Letharia vulpina), a beautiful chartreuse fruticose lichen that grows on the bark of pines and fir throughout the mountains of the Pacific United States, contains a mildly toxic yellow dye called vulpinic acid. The striking canary-yellow porcupine quills woven into the baskets of Klamoth and Yurok Indians were dyed with this lichen. A brownish dye from the foliose lichen Parmelia omphalodes is used to this day on hand-woven Harris tweeds from the Outer Hebrides. Some lichens contain various phenolic acids and essential oils that produce fragrant odors in scented soaps and help fix the aroma of fine perfumes. For centuries a lovely fruticose lichen called oak moss (Evernia prunastri) has been collected in Europe for making perfume.Through a complex process of solvent extraction and distillation, oak moss has become an important ingredient in the manufacture of perfumes and high-quality cosmetics. This remarkable lichen occurs in California, but air pollution has eliminated it throughout most of its former range in southern California. Oak moss still clings to the branches of ponderosa pines on Palomar Mountain in San Diego County. See Article About Lichens And Desert Varnish See Photos of Lichens Used For Dyes & Perfumes 97. Rosaceae: Rose Family Back To Alphabet Table Cydonia oblonga Quince Eriobotrya japonica Loquat Fragaria spp. (F. x ananassa, F. virginiana, F. chiloensis) Strawberry Prunus americana Wild Plum [Also other plum species used for prunes.] P. amygdalus Almond P. armeniaca Apricot P. avium & cerasus Cherry. P. domestica Garden Plum P. persica Peach P. persica var. nectarina Nectarine Pyrus communis Pear Malus sylvestris (Pyrus malus) [Common Apple and also wild crab apples.] Mesipulus germanica Medlar [A small, deciduous tree native to Europe and Asia Minor; the ripe, apple-shaped pomes are eaten raw and used in preserves.] Quillaja saponaria Soapbark Rosa spp. (R. odorata, R. damascena, R. gallica, R. rugosa) Rose [Numerous cultivated species and hybrid varieties; the fruits are called rose hips, an excellent natural source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) used in vitamin supplements.] Rubus spp. (R. idaeus, R. occidentalis, R. ursinus) Raspberry, Blackberry, Loganberry, & Dewberry. Apple, Pear, Quince, Loquat, Peach & Cherry Fruits See A Fresh Pluot: A Cross Between The Plum & Apricot See A Fresh Greenish Almond Right From The Tree See A Fresh Apricot With The Pit (Endocarp) Inside See The Aggregate fruit Of A Rose Called A Rose Hip See Aggregate Fruits Of The Blackberry And Strawberry 98. Rubiaceae: Madder Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinchona spp. (C. ledgeriana, C. pubescens, and C. officinalis) Quinine [From bark of several species native to the Andes of South America; important alkaloid in treatment of Malaria.] Genipa americana Genip [Little-known fruit of the West Indies.] Morinda citrifolia Painkiller Tree or "Noni." Coffea arabica Arabian Coffee [From seeds.] Rubia tinctorum Madder [Brilliant scarlet dye from roots; during Revolutionary War, the red coats of British soldiers were colored with this brilliant crimson dye.] Gardenia jasminoides Gardenia [Perfume from fragrant blossoms.] Nertera granadensis Pin Cushion Plant [Decorative little plant sold in southern California during fall months.] See The Red Dye Plant Called Madder See Coffee Plants On The Island Of Kauai See The Painkiller Tree Called "Noni." Pin Cushion Plant With Orange Fruits 99. Rutaceae: Rue Family Back To Alphabet Table Casimiroa edulis White Sapote [Banana-peach flavor.] Murraya koenigii Curry Leaf Tree [Leaves used in curries and curry powder.] Citrus aurantiifolia Lime C. limettioides Sweet Lime C. limetta Sweet Lemon C. aurantium Sour Orange (Bitter Orange) [One of the best oranges for making marmalade.] C. bergamia Bergamot [Perfume from fruit rinds; essential oil from peel also used as a flavoring in hard candy, baked goods, desserts and Earl Gray tea. Note: Bergamot tea comes from leaves of Monarda didyma and M. citriodora (Lamiaceae), also called Oswego tea or bee balm.] C. limon Lemon C. maxima Shaddock (Pomelo) C. medica Citron C. reticulata (C. nobilis) Mandarin Orange or Tangerine C. sinensis Sweet Orange C. x paradisi Grapefruit: Shaddock (C. maxima) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x nobilis Tangor: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x tangelo Tangelo: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Grapefruit (C. paradisi) Note: There are many other cultivated varieties of Citrus species. Fortunella japonica Round Kumquat F. margarita Oval Kumquat x Citrofortunella microcarpa Calamondin: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Kumquat (F. margarita) See Assorted Fruits (Hesperidiums) Of The Citrus Family See Tangelo Hybrid And Its Orange & Grapefruit Parents See Large & Amazing Pomelo--Mother Of The Grapefruit See The Delicious Lime And The Kumquat (Fortunella) See The Delicious Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides) See The Calamondin (x Citrofortunella microcarpa) See The Sweet White Sapote: Not A Hesperidium See The Curry Leaf Tree (Murraya koenigii) 100. Saccharomycetaceae: Yeast Family Back To Alphabet Table Kluyveromyces marxianus Nutritional Food Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. uuvarum Beer, Wine and Bread Yeasts Torulaspora delbrueckii Sherry Yeast Because of their ability to ferment sugars, yeast fungi play a major role in the beer, wine and baking industries. In the brewery, ethyl alcohol (ethanol) from the fermentation process is the primary industrial product; in the bakery, carbon dioxide released from the fermentation process causes the dough to rise. There are numerous optimal strains of these fungi adapted for specific types of fermented products. Go to the grass family (Poaceae) to see the numerous alcoholic beverages made from yeast fermentation. Note: The yeast responsible for kefir grains and sourdough bread is Torulopsis holmii in the family Cryptococcaceae. See The Hop Vine Used To Make Beer 101. Salicaceae: Willow Family Back To Alphabet Table Populus balsamifera Balsam Poplar; P. deltoides Cottonwood; P. tremuloides Quaking or White Aspen [Uses include a soft wood for boxes, etc. and as pulpwood in manufacture of paper.] 102. Santalaceae: Sandalwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Santalum album Sandalwood [The valuable scented heartwood of this Old World species is the source of sandalwood oil; other species of sandalwood are also highly prized for their wood; deforestation of native Hawaiian forests was originally due to the exportation of sandalwood.] Note: Red sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus) belongs to the legume family (Fabaceae). The powdered wood of red sandalwood is used for a bright red dye. Read About Hawaiian Sandalwood 103. Sapindaceae: Soapberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Sapindus saponaria Soapberry [Planted on Palomar College campus.] Schleichera oleosa Lac Tree [Host for lac insect.] Euphoria longana (Dimocarpus longan) Longan Litchi chinensis (Nephelium litchi) Lychee Nephelium lappaceum Rambutan Blighia sapida Akee Paullinia cupana Guarana [The "cola" of Brazil made from the dried, roasted seeds; guarana contains more than 5% caffeine, compared with about 1% for yerba mate tea.] Noteworthy Plants Article About Soaplily & Soapberry See Photos Of The Delicious Logan, Lychee and Rambutan See The High Caffeine "Cola Of Brazil" Called Guarana See Akee Fruit That Is Poisonous If Eaten At Wrong Stage 104. Sapotaceae: Sapodilla Family Back To Alphabet Table Acras zapota (Manilkara zapota) Sapodilla or Naseberry Tree [Chicle, the latex sap of the sapodilla tree, commonly used in chewing gums, is actually an elastic terpene polymer (polyterpene) similar to natural rubber.] Chrysophyllum cainito Star Apple [Interesting fruit of the Caribbean marketplace.] Palaquium gutta Gutta-Percha [The milky latex sap yields a polyterpene rubber with a number of remarkable uses, from the cores of golf balls to root canals of your teeth.] Pouteria sapota (Calocarpum sapota & C. mammosum) Mamey Sapote [Tropical American tree; large dark browm seeds used in Indian necklaces.] Pouteria campechiana Eggfruit or Canistel [Tropical American tree with delicious, fleshy fruit containing large, brown, shiny seeds.] See Article About Rubber And Chicle See The Amazing Uses Of Gutta-Percha Read About Mamey Sapote And Eggfruit See The Large Fruit Of A Mamey Sapote See An Eggfruit With Shiny Brown Seeds Star Apple From Hawaiian Island Of Maui Saururaceae: Lizard-Tail Family Back To Alphabet Table Anemopsis californica Yerba Mansa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; root made into a tea to relieve indigestion, asthma and to purify the blood; tea also used as liniment for rashes, cuts, bruises and sores; boiled leaves used as poultice for muscular aches and pains.] See Yerba Mansa In San Diego County 105. Saxifragaceae: Saxifrage Family Back To Alphabet Table Ribes spp. Currant and Gooseberry. [Also alternate host of white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola); since the white pine is more important economically as well as ecologically, the currants & gooseberries are eradicated in certain forested regions; gooseberries can be differentiated from currants because they are generally very spiny. See California Gooseberries And Currants 106. Scrophulariaceae: Figwort or Snapdragon Family Back To Alphabet Table Digitalis purpurea Foxglove [Heart stimulant (cardiac glycoside) digoxin and digitoxin from leaves.] Plants Producing Medical Glycosides 107. Simmondsiaceae: Jojoba Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: Jojoba was formerly placed in the Buxaceae. Simmondsia chinensis Jojoba [Native shrubs; seeds are edible; oil from seeds used as substitute for whale oil; oil used for wax, polish, and candles.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Jojoba Oil 108. Solanaceae: Nightshade Family Back To Alphabet Table Atropa belladonna Belladonna [Alkaloid atropine from lvs.] Capsicum annuum Red, Wax, Bell and Jalapeno Chile Peppers. [Many different varieties of peppers; paprika from dried fruit of one variety.] C. baccatum South American Peppers Known as "Ajis." C. chinense Habanero Peppers [Very hot!] C. frutescens Tabasco Peppers C. pubescens South American "Rocotos" and Mexican "Manzanos." Datura stramonium Jimsonweed [Source of drug stramonium from leaves and flowering tops; contains the alkaloids hyoscyamine, scopolamine and atropine; Indians used liquid from crushed roots of D. stramonium, D. wrightii and D. meteloides for hallucinogenic effect during puberty ritual; drug is very poisonous and is dangerous.] Duboisia hopwoodii Pituri [Alkaloid scopolamine from leaves.] Hyoscyamus niger Black Henbane [Alkaloid hyoscyamine from leaves.] Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato Physalis ixocarpa Tomatillo P. peruviana Cape Gooseberry or Poha Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco Solanum melongena Eggplant [Numerous cultivars and the almagro eggplant landrace.] S. tuberosum Potato [Edible tubers; average baked tuber about 100 kilocalories, unless topped with mounds of butter and sour cream.] S. quitoense Naranjilla [A large perennial herb of the Andes with orange, tomatolike fruits.] Note: Black Pepper is from dried unripe fruit (berry) of Piper nigrum, a member of the family Piperaceae. See Article About Plant Alkaloids See Article About Chile Peppers See Tomato, Tomatillo & Eggplant Almagro Eggplant From Central Spain Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) Fascinating Story Of The Irish Potato 109. Sterculiaceae: Sterculia Family Back To Alphabet Table Cola nitida & Cola acuminata Cola-Nut [Seeds used in soft drinks & contain alkaloid caffeine.] Theobroma cacao Cacao [Seeds contain alkaloid theobromine and are source of chocolate; sweet chocolate has sugar and milk added.] Sterculia urens Gum Karaya or Sterculia Gum [Native to rocky hills and plateaus of India, the sap of this tree is the source of a valuable water-soluble gum that forms a strong adhesive gel when mixed with a small amount of water; because of its resistance to bacterial and enzymatic breakdown, it has been used for dental adhesives and as a binder in bologna and other lunch meats; it is also used in salad dressings, cheese spreads, whipped toppings and hair setting gels. S. lychnophora Poontalai or Pang da Hai [Seeds imbibe water and expand into a gelatinous mass that is used to make a beverage in southeast Asia.] S. foetida Java Olive [Although the flowers have a putrid odor, the seeds are eaten raw, roasted or fried.] See The Gelatinous Seed Of Sterculia lychnophora See The Seed Called Java Olive or Indian Almond See The Remarkable Cauliflorous Cacao Fruit See The Distinctive Leaves Of The Cola-Nut Tree 110. Taxaceae: Yew Family Back To Alphabet Table Taxus brevifolia Pacific Yew [Bark and needles are the source of taxol, a valuable drug for the tratment of ovarian and breat cancers.] See Pacific Yew Foliage And Seeds 111. Taxodiaceae: Taxodium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sequoia sempervirens Coast Redwood [Important lumber tree because of decay resistant wood; tallest tree species on earth, rivaled in height by the giant Eucalyptus regnans of Australia.] Sequoiadendron gigantum Giant Sequoia [Most massive living thing on earth, 36 ft. in diameter and over 1200 tons; mostly protected in several California National Parks such as Yosemite, Sequoia and King's Canyon.] Taxodium distichum Bald Cypress [Deciduous conifer of swamps with peculiar knees or pneumatophores; wood resistant to decay.] See WAYNE'S WORD Botanical Record-Breakers See Article About The Taxodium Family (Taxodiaceae) Ternstroemiaceae: Tea Family See Theaceae 112. Theaceae: Tea Family (Ternstroemiaceae) Back To Alphabet Table Camellia sinensis Tea [Leaves are source of the many varieties of green & black teas.] The grade of tea depends on the age of the leaves. In "golden tips" the youngest bud only is used; in "orange pekoe" the smallest leaf; in "pekoe" the second leaf; in "pekoe souchong" the third leaf; in "souchong" the fourth leaf; and in "congou" the fifth and largest leaf to be gathered. In green tea the leaves are dried and appear dull green; in black tea the leaves are fermented and then dried; "oolong tea" is only partially fermented and is intermediate between black and green. The various pekoes, souchongs, and congous are black teas, while gunpowder and hyson are the most important grades of green tea. See tea plant leaves & flower, and the closely related Camellia. 113. Tiliaceae: Basswood Family Back To Alphabet Table Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius Jute [Valuable stem fibers woven into burlap, sackcloth and tough twines.] Tilia americana American Basswood or Linden [In Palomar College Arboretum.] T. cordata European Linden Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle 114. Trapaceae: Water-Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Trapa bicornis Water Caltrop or "Ling Chio" [Asian water plant with strange woody fruit resembling the head of a bull; starchy seed inside fruits in cooked and eaten.] T. natans Water Caltrop [Another species of water caltrop with 4-pronged woody fruit.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Water Caltrop 115. Tuberaceae (and Terfeziaceae): Truffle Families Back To Alphabet Table Tuber melanosporum Black Truffle T. magnatum White Truffle T. gibbosum Oregon White Truffle Of all the edible fungi, truffles (Tuber spp.) are perhaps the most fascinating. They are truly the ne plus ultra of mushroom cuisine. Truffles are the fruiting bodies (ascocarps) of mycorrhizal ascomycetous fungi. Unlike other common forest mushrooms, truffles are subterranean and resemble small pebbles or clods of dirt beneath the soil. Truffles emit the odor of certain mammalian steroids and are irresistible to some mammals, including female pigs. This particular steroid is found in the saliva and breathe of male pigs (boars) and explains the natural lust and talent sows have for truffle hunting. Pigs and dogs can detect truffles from as far away as 50 yards, and there is even a case of a dog jumping over a hedge and running across a field to find a choice truffle under a beech tree 100 yards away. Since the fabled truffles of France and Italy retail for more than $500 a pound, a good swine or canine truffle sniffer is a valuable asset. Read About Truffles In Fungus Article See Some Dried Oregon White Truffles Umbelliferae: Carrot Family See Apiaceae 116. Urticaceae: Nettle Family Back To Alphabet Table Boehmeria nivea Ramie [Strong fibers from stems (stronger than cotton and flax); made into lustrous China grass cloth.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 117. Verbenaceae: Verbena Family Back To Alphabet Table Tectona grandis Teak [Wood is hard and does not warp, split, or crack, and is very resistant to termites and decay; elephants are often used in lumbering operations.] 118. Vitaceae: Grape Family Back To Alphabet Table Vitis labrusca North American Grape [Many varieties, including the Concord grape.] Vitis vinifera European Wine Grape [Many varieties of wine grapes and edible table grapes.] There are many varieties of grapes. In the European tightskins, which are used for wines, the skin does not separate readily from the pulp. Grapes are one of the oldest cultivated plants. They have been grown in Egypt for 6,000 years. They were highly developed by Greeks and Romans. Fermentation is brought about through the action of wild yeasts which are present on the skins of the fruit (whitish powder). The maximum alcoholic content of natural wines is about 12 to 16% (24 to 32 proof). Higher alcoholic content will kill the yeast cells. Brandy is made from distilled wines and has a much higher alcoholic content (up to 140 proof!). Red wines are made from grapes with colored skins (with anthocyanin), while white wines are made from white grapes (or red grapes with skins removed). In dry wines the sugar is almost completely fermented. In sweet wines fermentation is stopped before all the sugar is converted. The North American grapes are larger and more hardy than the European. The fruit is round with a more watery flesh and a thin skin that slips off very easily. They are used for eating and for making grape juice (concord grapes), jams, and jellies. Of course, grapes are also the source of raisins. See 'Thompson Seedless' & 'Red Seedless' Grapes No Families With W Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With X Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With Y Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 119. Zingiberaceae: Ginger Family Back To Alphabet Table Zingiber officinale Ginger [Rhizome is the source of an important spice (oleoresin) used in ginger ale, ginger beer, and gingerbread.] Curcuma domestica Turmeric [Curcuma longa also listed for turmeric; dried, ground rhizome used in curry powder and as a yellow dye.] Elettaria cardamomum Cardamom [A highly aromatic spice derived from the seeds and dried fruits; used in curry powder, seasoning for sausages, incenses, perfumes and medicines.] See A Turmeric Hybrid In Full Bloom See A Ginger Rhizome: A Valuable Spice 120. Zygophyllaceae: Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Guaicum officinale Ligum Vitae [One of the world's hardest ironwoods (specific gravity of 1.37); used for bushing blocks on propeller shafts of steamships; also source of gum guaiac, resin providing the natural, self-lubrication qualities of the wood; resin used medically to test for presence of hidden blood; peroxidase enzymes in blood cells oxidize chemicals in resin, resulting in a blue-green color change.] Tribulus terrestris Puncture Vine [Old World sprawling weed that is responsible for many punctured bicycle tires in the American southwest.] Larrea tridentata Creosote Bush [Dominant shrub of Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico.] One of the most common questions asked by my students on desert field trips is whether creosote comes from the creosote bush. The answer is an unequivocal no. The commercial source of creosote is derived from the distillation of coal tar. It is produced by high temperature carbonization of bituminous coal. Wood creosote is obtained from the distillation of wood tar from several woods of the eastern United States. Wood creosote is a mixture of phenolic compounds that are used medicinally as an antiseptic and expectorant. Under no circumstances should coal tar creosote be taken internally. Although creosote bush does not grow in the chaparral plant community of California, the dried leaves of this shrub are the source of "chaparral tea," a controversial herbal remedy with antitumor properties. The leaves contain a powerful antioxidant that apparently destroys tumor cells; however, there are reported cases of liver toxicity, including toxic hepatitis and jaundice. See The Resinous Leaves Of Creosote Bush Gum Guaiac & Other Uses For Lignum Vitae ______________________________________________________________ Economic Botany References 1. Armstrong, W.P. 1998. "The Wild and Wonderful Family of Gourds." Pacific Horticulture 59 (4): 11-18. 2. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Logwood: The Tree That Spawned A Nation." Pacific Horticulture 53 (1): 38-43 3. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Natural Dyes." Ornament 15 (4): 70-73 + 92-95. 4. Armstrong, W.P. 1982. "Not Beavers, Stars or Sons of Jupiter." Environment Southwest No. 496: 4-7. 5. Bailey, L.H. and E.Z. Bailey. 1976. Hortus Third. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. 6. Balick, M.J. and P.A. Cox. 1996. Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. Scientific American Library, New York. 7. Bianchini, F. and F. Corbetta. 1976. The Complete Book of Fruits and Vegetables. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. 8. Bold, H.C. and M.J. Wynne. 1985. Introduction To The Algae (2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 9. Boswell, V.R. 1949. "Our Vegetable Travelers." The National Geographic Magazine Vol. XCVI (2): 145-217. 10. Brock, T.D. and M.T. Madigan. 1988. Biology of Microorganisms (Fifth Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 11. Chrispeels, M.J. and D. Sadava. 1977. Plants, Food, and People. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 12. Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, California. 13. Fong, C.H. and Y. Hoi-Sen. 1980. Malaysian Fruits in Color. Tropical Press SDH. BHD. 56-1&2 Jalan Maarof, 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysaia. 14. Heiser, C.B., Jr. 1973. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Man's Food. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 15. Hill, A.F. Economic Botany. 1952. McGraw-Hill, New York. 16. Klein, R.M. 1979. The Green World: An Introduction to Plants and People. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York. 17. Langenheim, J.H. and K.V. Thimann. 1982. Plant Biology and its Relation to Human Affairs. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 18. Lewington, A. 1990. Plants For People. Oxford University Press, New York. 19. Lewis, W.H. and M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Man's Health. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 20. Levetin, E. and K. McMahon. 1996. Plants and Society. Wm. C. Brown, Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. 21. Read, B.E. and W. Wagner. 1940. Shanghai Vegetables. The China Journal Publishing Co., Ltd. 22. Richardson, W.N. and T. Stubbs. 1978. Plants, Agriculture and Human Society. W.A. Benjamin, Inc., Reading Massachusetts. 23. Robinson, T. 1964. The Organic Constituents of Higher Plants: Their Chemistry and Interrelationships. Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 24. Schery, R.W. 1972. Plants For Man. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 25. Simpson, B.B. and M.C. Ogorzaly. 1995. Economic Botany: Plants in Our World. Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. 26. Und, I. and P. Schoenfelder. 2004. Das Neue Handbuch der Heilpflanzen. Kosmos Verlag, Germany. 27. Van Aken, N. and J. Harrisson. 1995. The Great Exotic Fruit Book. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California. 28. Weiss, E.A. 1971. Castor, Sesame and Safflower. Barnes & Noble, New York. 29. Windholz, M., S. Budavari, R.F.Blumetti, and E. S. Otterbein (Editors). 1983. The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey. + Link To Purdue University Alphabetical Crop Index [top3.gif] [hipoicon.gif] List Of Economically Important Families __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To WAYNE'S WORD Home Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To NOTEWORTHY PLANTS Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To Biology GEE WHIZ TRIVIA Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To The LEMNACEAE ON-LINE Page All text material & images on these pages copyright (c) W.P. Armstrong #Healthy Girl's Kitchen - Atom Healthy Girl's Kitchen - RSS skip to main | skip to sidebar Healthy Girl's Kitchen [about1.png] [healthyrecipes1.png] [shophealthy1.png] [awesomeproducts1.png] [greatstrategies1.png] [endemotional1.png] Pages quote Your real work on this planet is not your weight or your fat. The fabric of your emotional journey is not about deprivation and overeating. It is about love and fear and manifesting the magnificent person you already are. It is time to pay attention to your real life. Stop distracting yourself from your emotional life. Find out what you are feeling and feel it. It is then that you can find the way to who you really are. I promise you, it is not just fat. -Brooke Castillo, If I am So Smart, Why Can't I Lose Weight? subscribe [subscribe_tag.png] [rss-pencil48.png] [twitter-pencil48.png] [facebook-pencil48.png] Enter your email address: ____________________ Subscribe Delivered by FeedBurner TIP: YOU MUST CONFIRM E-MAIL SUBSCRIPTION. CHECK YOUR E-MAIL AFTER SUBSCRIBING. CHECK YOUR SPAM--THE E-MAIL MAY BE THERE! contact me healthygirlskitchen@gmail.com Before! [before.png] Before! This is me before becoming Plant Strong! Total cholesterol: 231 After! [after.png] After! This is me after happily going Plant Strong for over two years. Total cholesterol: 147 Total weight loss: 40 pounds zazzle Volumetric Eating Remember caloric density when you are trying to lose weight. Vegetables have 100 calories per pound, fruit 300 calories per pound, whole grains 500 calories per pound, beans 600 calories per pound, animal meat, 1000 calories per pound, refined carbs (white flour stuff) 1400 calories per pound, junk food, 2300 calories per pound, nuts/seeds, 2800 calories per pound, oil 4000 calories per pound. Staying on the lower end of the caloric density scale is key to weight loss. ~Natala Constantine [disclaimer.png] Disclaimer Please keep in mind that I am not a nutritionist or doctor. I recommend checking with your doctor before making any changes to your diet. Most of the information on this blog is based upon my own personal experience and research. All photographs and content are copyright Healthy Girl's Kitchen. Please contact me for permission to use photographs and content. Foodgawker Gallery my foodgawker gallery Bliss Amazon stuff i love [stuff_tag.png] * Luscious Verde Cards * More from Luscious Verde * Peer Trainer * Cool Car Magnets * Eat to Live * The Engine 2 Diet * Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease * The Beck Diet Solution * The Best Kitchen Tool You'll Ever Find--The VitaMix Blender * You Are What You Eat on BBC America * Volumetrics * Cleveland Yoga * Trader Joe's * Penzey's Spices * Whole Foods Top 50 Blog 2 Learn why we're not just a Health Coach Training Program Food on the Table Grocery List Privacy Policy * HGK Privacy Policy Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School The envelope please. And the Academy Award for Most Useful Film goes to . . . Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School! [fast+food+shopping+school.jpg] Yes, it's THAT good. But what exactly is Fast Food Shopping School? Well, it's the third video in Jeff Novick's series called, you guessed it, Fast Food. [Fast+Food+Jeff+Novick+Videos+015+edited.jpg] That's the same series which freed me from the shackles in my brain that had me thinking that good, healthy, tasty food just "took a long time to make." Sometimes it does, but it doesn't always have to. You can read about that here, here and here. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/video-review-and-giveaway-jeff-novicks.html&layou t=standard&show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorschem e=light Pin It Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps [Moroccan+Burger+Wrap+021+edited+with+text.jpg] I'm gearing up this week to post a review of Jeff's Novick's latest video, "Fast Food Shopping School." I'm so excited to tell you about it, complete with a giveaway and promotions for those who don't win. Jeff, a nutritionist who also went to cooking school, is quickly becoming my biggest plant-based diet hero. I have learned so much from him and we've never met! He has really changed not only the amount of time I spend in the kitchen, but also my level of confidence. A few days ago on Facebook I saw Jeff posting a recipe for a new "Fast Food" burger of his with a Moroccan flair. I totally dig any veg'n Middle Eastern type food (I really have never met an ethnic food that I did not at least like), so I excitedly scribbled down the instructions. I prepared them a few days later and we have been enjoying them ever since (they keep well in the refrigerator). Not my favorite Fast Food burger of his, but certainly good. Then inspiration struck. I had some Roasted Red Pepper Hummus and grape tomatoes hanging around that I wanted to use up. Added to fresh sprouted grain tortillas and salad greens, and, well, the rest is history! The acidy pop from the warm tomatoes, the little bit of sweetness from the currants and the sweet potatoes, the creaminess from the hummus; it all just works wonders together. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/moroccan-veggie-burger-wraps.html&layout=standard &show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Designated Flatulence Area Is anyone watching the TV series "Portlandia?" A while back I wrote a blog posting called "Fart or Be Fat" I was somewhat new on a plant based diet and passing a lot of gas on most days. Fast forward two years and I have to think that I'm no gassier than I was pre-plant based eating, in fact, I might even be less gassy. Regardless of my personal gassy past, I know that for most people starting out on a plant based diet, excessive gas can cause great alarm. Enough to want to make some people throw in the towel. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/designated-flatulence-area.html&layout=standard&s how_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Older Posts Home Pinterest Follow Me on Pinterest Eat to Live [eatToLive.jpg] [show?id=A2JoAoaaUqw&bids=254134.7254325&type=2&subid=0] Dr. Fuhrman Dr. Fuhrman search this blog [search.png] Loading... [facebook.png] Become a Fan on FB bliss ad Blog Archive [archives_tag.png] * v 2013 (6) + v January (6) o Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food... o Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps o Designated Flatulence Area o Utopea Giveway Winner Announced and New Recipe (Fi... o One Grain More? One Laugh More! And How to Replace... o New Year, New Resolutions? 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Site + UW Fast Plants + UW Nematode Diagnostic Lab + UW Vegetable Pathology + Wisconsin Seed Potato Cert. Prog. * Seminars + Overview + Fridays @ 4 + Spring 2013 Seminars * Newsletters + The Pathogen * Contact Us Within This Section... * Overview * Visions, Values, and Goals * History * Facilities * Faculty and Staff * Plant Pathology Library * Research * News * Donations Search Search Plant Pathology Website: _______________ Search Vision, Values, and Goals Our Vision To be a World leader in research, teaching, and extension involving plant health, while serving the changing needs of society, the environment, and the University. Our Shared Values Our collective success depends upon creating and maintaining a supportive and collegial environment. Our effectiveness as a Department depends on accepting and utilizing diversity in work style, expertise, skills, personality, and outlook. Our ability to solve multifaceted problems requires contributions from, and mutual respect among, our research, teaching, and extension teams. Our ability to establish and to preserve excellence at the forefront of our changing field depends on innovation, creativity, risk-taking, and growth. Our Shared Goals Our research goal is to understand microbes, plants, and their interactions in the environment in order to provide effective approaches by which plant diseases can be controlled and beneficial interactions can be maximized. Our instructional goals are to offer superior education in plant pathology and plant-microbe interactions and to broaden the perspectives of plant biology in undergraduate, graduate, and public education. Our extension and outreach goals are to integrate and extend knowledge and provide services that foster an understanding of plant diseases and that enhance plant health, food safety, a profitable and sustainable agriculture, and stewardship of the environment. UW logo Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1598 608.262.1410 (tel) or 608.263.2626 (fax) Copyright (c) 2012 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System Feedback, questions, or accessibility issues: Russell Labs Computing Login Help The University of Texas at Austin Plant Biology Graduate Program Prospective Students Current Students Faculty Events Facilities Directory Contact Us Ecology Cell & Molecular Biology Phycology Physiology Systematics & Evolution __________________________________________________________________ School of Biological Sciences ____________________ Search Spotlight Taylor Quedensley Taylor Quedensley Ling Zhu Ling Zhu Welcome The Graduate Program in Plant Biology at The University of Texas at Austin has earned an international reputation for excellence in research and teaching in the plant sciences. The Plant Biology Program is a consortium of faculty from several sections of the School of Biological Sciences whose research is in one of six areas specializing in plants. These faculty supervise graduate students whose M.A. and Ph.D. degrees are based on empirical research focused on plants. The Graduate Program in Plant Biology supports graduate students with grants and assistantships in addition to the resources generally available in the Sections of the School of Biological Sciences. If you are a prospective student, you'll find information here ranging from admission requirements, research areas, faculty profiles and an overview of the extensive research facilities that The University of Texas at Austin has to offer. Plant Biology images. (Photo credit: Dr. Z. Jeffrey Chen/University of Texas at Austin; Shutterstock images) Site map | UT Austin | Copyright | Privacy | Accessibility @ 2006 School of Biological Sciences College of Natural Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin counter Northwestern University // Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Search site...______ Go Program in Plant Biology and Conservation * Home * About + Testimonials * Graduate + PhD Program + MS Program + Grants + Career and Professional Development + TGS Calendar * Undergraduate + Plant Biology Concentration + Combined Bachelor's/Master's Degree + Research Opportunities + Courses * People + Faculty + Students + Staff * Alumni + Research of Past Graduates + Alumni Communication * Research + Research Facilities + Research Areas * News and Events + Chicago Botanic Garden Events + Past Events + Recent Awards and Honors + News Archive + Publications Plant Biology Conservation The Program in Plant Biology and Conservation is a collaboration between Northwestern University and the Chicago Botanic Garden. The program offers PhD and MS degrees, as well as courses and research opportunities for undergraduates. Explore our site to learn more. In the Field Briscoe in the field Students in our program conduct research in both the field and the laboratory. Here Laura Briscoe is conducting research on bryophytes. News and Events Louise Egerton-Warburton, PhD has been awarded a booster grant of $30,000 from the Initiative for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern (ISEN) for her research Metagenomic Discovery of Novel Lignin Degrading Fungi for Biofuel Production. Matthew Rhodes was awarded a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research for $500 to support his Master's research focusing on how temporal variation in pollinator community structure influences reproductive dynamics and pollen movement in Oenothera harringtonii, an evening primrose endemic to southeastern Colorado, USA. His Master's advisor is Krissa Skogen. Byron Tsang defended his MS thesis "Environmental Factors Affecting Woodland Legume Restoration," on Tuesday, 27 November 2012 at 1:00 pm in the Plant Science Center Seminar Room at the Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe. Rebecca Tonietto, a third year PhD student has been awarded a Presidential Fellowship from Northwestern University's Graduate School for her research on determining the effects of tall grass prairie restoration on native bee communities. Her research supervisor is Dr. Dan Larkin. The fellowships are awarded to a very limited number of graduate students each year. PBC group on LinkedIn Join our LinkedIn Group About Our Partner Chicago Botanic Garden Explore the research and opportunities at the Plant Science Center at the Chicago Botanic Garden. Photo Gallery Program in Plant Biology and Conservation 2205 Tech Drive, O.T. Hogan Hall, Room 2-144, Evanston, IL 60208 USA Phone: voice+1-847-491-4031 Fax: fax+1-847-467-0525 E-mail: n-zerega@northwestern.edu Northwestern University | Judd A. and Marjorie Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Disclaimer and Policy Statements | Northwestern Calendar (c) 2012 Northwestern University Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences January 17, 2013 WHAT IS MYMET? Watch a video to find out. We're inviting you to share your favorite works of art using MyMet. See What's Your Met? for more information. Register Already have a mymet account? Sign in Email Address: ____________________ Forgotten your details? Password: ____________________ [ ] Stay logged in Sign In The Metropolitan Museum of Art Logo The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art Go to Navigation Go to Content Go to Search Search this web site ____________________ submit search * Visit + Hours and Admission + Plan Your Visit + Museum Map + Suggested Itineraries + Visit The Cloisters + Accessibility + Contact Information * Exhibitions + Current Exhibitions + Upcoming Exhibitions + Past Exhibitions * Collections + Browse Highlights + New Installations + Recent Acquisitions + Galleries + Search the Collections + Connections + Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History * Events + Find Events + Programs + Travel with the Met * Learn + For Kids + For Teens + For Adults + For College Students + For Educators + For Visitors with Disabilities * Research + Libraries and Study Centers + MetPublications + Internships and Fellowships + Archaeological Fieldwork + Conservation and Scientific Research + Curatorial Research + Image Resources + Provenance Research Project * Give and Join + Donate + Membership + Planned Giving + Benefit Parties + Corporate Support + Curatorial Friends Groups + Gifts in Honor or Memory * About the Museum + Now at the Met + The Met Around the World + Museum Mission Statement + History of the Museum + Museum Departments + Entertaining at the Met + Career and Volunteer Opportunities + Annual Reports + Collections Management Policy + Contact Information + Press Room * Shop Sign up for emails Email address_______ Sign up for emails Become a member MyMet Sign in / Register * Home > * Exhibitions > * Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings Shopping cart: Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings The exhibition is made possible by the Gail and Parker Gilbert Fund and the Jane and Robert Carroll Fund. Featured Media * Videos (9) [EMBED] Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. * Share * * Add to MyMet Submit Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Shield (Grere’o [?]) from the Solomon Islands Program information On the occasion of the exhibition Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings (on view June 5–September 3, 2012), the artist recorded his thoughts about various works of art in the Met's collection. Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Bird in Space, by Constantin Brancusi (00:01:26) 732 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:57) 1153 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Antoine Dominique Sauveur Aubert, (born 1817), the Artist's Uncle, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:47) 609 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Tlingit Ceremonial Copper (00:01:25) 198 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Cypriot Copper Ingot (00:01:19) 212 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Water Lilies, by Claude Monet (00:01:17) 681 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on his painting Blue Panel (00:01:47) 451 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on L'Arlésienne: Madame Joseph-Michel Ginoux (Marie Julien, 1848–1911), by Vincent van Gogh (00:01:23) 573 views Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings June 5–September 3, 2012 Accompanied by a catalogue and an Audio Guide One of the foremost artists of our day, Ellsworth Kelly (American, born 1923) may be best known for his rigorous abstract painting, but he has made figurative drawings throughout his career, creating an extraordinary body of work that now spans six decades. There has never been a major museum exhibition dedicated exclusively to the plant drawings. The selection of approximately eighty drawings begins in 1948 during Kelly's early sojourn in Paris and continues throughout his travels to his most recent work made in upstate New York. Related Content A free iTunes app was created in conjunction with two recent Ellsworth Kelly exhibitions in Munich. Met Media Met Media Met Kids Met Kids Met Store Met Store * Accessibility * Site Index * Terms and Conditions * Privacy Policy * Acknowledgments * Press © 2000–2012 The Metropolitan Museum of Art. All rights reserved. GA, the Society for Medicinal Plant and Natural Product Research (“Gesellschaft für Arzneipflanzen- und Naturstoff-Forschung”), was founded in 1953 in Bad Camberg, Germany, for the purpose of promotion and dissemination of medicinal plant research. Over the years GA has developed into an international scientific society with at present ca. 1400 members from 82 countries. The scientific interests of GA cover nowadays all aspects of medicinally used natural products like agricultural science, biology, chemistry, pharmacy, pharmacognosy, pharmacology and medicine. Since 1953 Planta Medica is the official journal of the society. Its impact factor is 2.037 (in 2009). GA organizes every year a large international congress on medicinal plant research in major European cities, and every 5 years joint meetings with related European and North American scientific societies. Besides, GA is setting up and supporting smaller symposia and workshops on specific topics related to natural product research. GA has established 5 permanent committees which elaborate and disseminate information on the following topics: · Biological and Pharmacological Activities of Natural Compounds · Breeding and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants · Manufacturing and Quality Control of Herbal Medicinal Products · Regulatory Affairs on Herbal Medicinal Products · Young Researchers Workshops Reasons for a Membership · To promote science and the dissemination of medicinal plant research. · To get informed on all activities of GA in first priority. · To join a group of people interested in the same field. · To get financial support for attending the scientific annual congress of GA. · To receive a financial discount in many areas related to GA. · To find the abstract book of the annual GA congress published in the members’ area of our homepage or to receive a free print copy on request in case you could not attend. · To subscribe to the journal Planta Medica at reduced subscription rates. · To become active in the planning of the future of GA. Benefits of a Membership · Continuous information on activities inside and outside the GA by a newsletter twice a year. · Being on the mailing list of all congresses and symposia organized by GA. · Access to closed sites of the GA homepage. · Reduced fees at congresses/symposia of GA. · Travel grants for students or young scientists to attend the annual congress of GA. · Free copy of the abstract book of the annual GA congress for members who did not attend. · Reduced subscription rates for Planta Medica either in “print” or “online only” version. #HuffPost Search The Full Feed Latest News The Blog Featured Posts Kathy Freston: A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet Kathy Freston: A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet HuffPost's QuickRead... Loading... HuffPost's QuickRead... 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GerardKlaus SchwabDavid BromwichJim Wallis Kathy Freston Kathy Freston Bestselling Author, "Veganist: Lose Weight, Get Healthy, Change the World" GET UPDATES FROM Kathy Freston Like [DEL: :DEL] 1k A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet Posted: 09/24/09 09:34 AM ET React [follow-arrow.png] Amazing Inspiring Funny Scary Hot Crazy Important Weird Follow [follow-arrow.png] Cancer , Cancer Cure , Health , Plant-Based Diet , Kathy Freston , Animal Protein , Carcinogens , Casein , Cure For Cancer , Nurtition , Preventative Medicine , T. Colin Campbell , Healthy Living News share this story Get Healthy Living Alerts ____________________ Sign Up Submit this story digg reddit stumble I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteemed doctors are saying is just beginning to be understood and accepted, perhaps because what they are saying does not conveniently fit in with or support the multi-billion dollar food industries that profit from our "not knowing". One thing is for sure: we are getting sicker and more obese than our health care system can handle, and the conventional methods of dealing with disease often have harmful side effects and are ineffective for some patients. As it is now, one out of every two of us will get cancer or heart disease and die from it - an ugly and painful death as anyone who has witnessed it can attest. And starting in the year 2000, one out of every three children who are born after that year will develop diabetes--a disease that for most sufferers (those with Type 2 diabetes) is largely preventable with lifestyle changes. This is a rapidly emerging crisis, the seriousness of which I'm not sure we have yet recognized. The good news is, the means to prevent and heal disease seems to be right in front of us; it's in our food. Quite frankly, our food choices can either kill us - which mounting studies say that they are, or they can lift us right out of the disease process and into soaring health. In the next few months, I will share a series of interviews I've conducted with the preeminent doctors and nutritional researchers in the fields of their respective expertise. And here it is straight out: they are all saying the same thing in different ways and through multiple and varying studies: animal protein seems to greatly contribute to diseases of nearly every type; and a plant-based diet is not only good for our health, but it's also curative of the very serious diseases we face . Cancer On the subject of cancer, I've asked Dr. T. Colin Campbell, Professor Emeritus of Cornell University and author of the groundbreaking The China Study to explain how cancer happens and what we can do to prevent and reverse it. Dr. Campbell's work is regarded by many as the definitive epidemiological examination of the relationship between diet and disease. He has received more than 70 grant years of peer-reviewed research funding, much of which was funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), and he has authored more than 300 research papers. He grew up on a dairy farm believing in the great health value of animal protein in the American diet and set out in his career to investigate how to produce more and better animal protein. Troublesome to his preconceived hypothesis of the goodness of dairy, Dr. Campbell kept running up against results that consistently proved an emerging and comprehensive truth: that animal protein is disastrous to human health. Through a variety of experimental study designs, epidemiological evidence, along with observation of real life conditions which had rational biological explanation, Dr. Campbell has made a direct and powerful correlation between cancer (and other diseases and illnesses) and animal protein. Following is a conversation I had with him so that I could better understand the association. KF: What happens in the body when cancer develops? What is the actual process? TCC: Cancer generally develops over a long period of time, divided into 3 stages, initiation, promotion and progression. Initiation occurs when chemicals or other agents attack the genes of normal cells to produce genetically modified cells capable of eventually causing cancer. The body generally repairs most such damage but if the cell reproduces itself before it is repaired, its new (daughter) cell retains this genetic damage. This process may occur within minutes and, to some extent, is thought to be occurring most of the time in most of our tissues. Promotion occurs when the initiated cells continue to replicate themselves and grow into cell masses that eventually will be diagnosed. This is a long growth phase occurring over months or years and is known to be reversible. Progression occurs when the growing cancer masses invade neighboring tissues and/or break away from the tissue of origin (metastasis) and travel to distant tissues when they are capable of growing independently at which point they are considered to be malignant. KF: Why do some people get cancer, and other don't? What percentage is genetic, and what percentage has to do with diet? TCC: Although the initiated cells are not considered to be reversible, the cells growing through the promotion stage are usually considered to be reversible, a very exciting concept. This is the stage that especially responds to nutritional factors. For example, the nutrients from animal based foods, especially the protein, promote the development of the cancer whereas the nutrients from plant-based foods, especially the antioxidants, reverse the promotion stage. This is a very promising observation because cancer proceeds forward or backward as a function of the balance of promoting and anti-promoting factors found in the diet, thus consuming anti-promoting plant-based foods tend to keep the cancer from going forward, perhaps even reversing the promotion. The difference between individuals is almost entirely related to their diet and lifestyle practices. Although all cancer and other diseases begin with genes, this is not the reason whether or not the disease actually appears. If people do the right thing during the promotion stage, perhaps even during the progression stage, cancer will not appear and if it does, might even be resolved. Most estimates suggest that not more than 2-3 percent of cancers are due entirely to genes; almost all the rest is due to diet and lifestyle factors. Consuming plant based foods offers the best hope of avoiding cancer, perhaps even reversing cancer once it is diagnosed. Believing that cancer is attributed to genes is a fatalistic idea but believing that cancer can be controlled by nutrition is a far more hopeful idea. KF: You said that initially something attacks the genes, chemicals or other agents; like what? TCC: Cancer, like every other biological event--good or bad--begins with genes. In the case of cancer, gene(s) that give rise to cancer either may be present when we are born or, during our lifetimes, normal genes may be converted into cancer genes by certain highly reactive chemicals (i.e., carcinogens). Consider 'cancer genes' as seeds that grow into tumor masses only if they are 'fed'. The 'feeding' comes from wrongful nutrition. It's like growing a lawn. We plant seeds but they don't grow into grass (or weeds) unless they are provided water, sunlight and nutrients. So it is with cancer. In reality, we are planting seeds all of our lifetime although some may be present at birth, not only for cancer but also for other events as well. But this mostly does not matter unless we 'nourish' their growth. The chemicals that create these cancer genes are called 'carcinogens'. Most carcinogens of years past have been those that attack normal genes to give cancer genes. These are initiating carcinogens, or initiators. But more recently, carcinogens also may be those that promote cancer growth. They are promoting carcinogens, or promoters. Our work showed that casein is the most relevant cancer promoter ever discovered. Aside from chemicals initiating or promoting cancer, other agents such as cosmic rays (energetic particles) from the sun or from the outer reaches of space may impact our genes to cause them to change (i.e., mutate) so that they could give rise to cancer 'seeds'. The most important point to consider is that we cannot do much about preventing initiation but we can do a lot about preventing promotion. The initiating idea is fatalistic and outside of our control but the promotion idea is hopeful because we can change our exposure to promoting agents and reverse the cancer process, thus is within our control. KF: What exactly is so bad about animal protein? TCC: I don't choose the word "exactly" because it suggests something very specific. Rather, casein causes a broad spectrum of adverse effects. Among other fundamental effects, it makes the body more acidic, alters the mix of hormones and modifies important enzyme activities, each of which can cause a broad array of more specific effects. One of these effects is its ability to promote cancer growth (by operating on key enzyme systems, by increasing hormone growth factors and by modifying the tissue acidity). Another is its ability to increase blood cholesterol (by modifying enzyme activities) and to enhance atherogenesis, which is the early stage of cardiovascular disease. And finally, although these are casein-specific effects, it should be noted that other animal-based proteins are likely to have the same effect as casein. KF: Ok, so I am clear that it's wise to avoid casein, which is intrinsic in dairy (milk and cheese), but how is other animal protein, such as chicken, steak, or pork, implicated in the cause and growth of cancer? TCC: I would first say that casein is not just "intrinsic" but IS THE MAIN PROTEIN OF COW MILK, REPRESENTING ABOUT 87% OF THE MILK PROTEIN. The biochemical systems which underlie the adverse effects of casein are also common to other animal-based proteins. Also, the amino acid composition of casein, which is the characteristic primarily responsible for its property, is similar to most other animal-based proteins. They all have what we call high 'biological value', in comparison, for example, with plant-based proteins, which is why animal protein promotes cancer growth and plant protein doesn't. KF: Isn't anything in moderation ok, as long as we don't overdo it? TCC: I rather like the expression told by my friend, Caldwell Esselstyn, Jr., MD, the Cleveland Clinic surgeon who reversed heart disease and who says, "Moderation kills!" I prefer to go the whole way, not because we have fool-proof evidence showing that 100% is better than, say, 95% for every single person for every single condition but that it is easier to avoid straying off on an excursion that too often becomes a slippery slope back to our old ways. Moreover, going the whole way allows us to adapt to new unrealized tastes and to rid ourselves of some old addictions. And finally, moderation often means very different things for different people. KF: Are you saying that if one changes their diet from animal based protein to plant-based protein that the disease process of cancer can be halted and reversed? TCC: Yes, this is what our experimental research shows. I also have become aware of many anecdotal claims by people who have said that their switch to a plant-based diet stopped even reversed (cured?) their disease. One study on melanoma has been published in the peer-reviewed literature that shows convincing evidence that cancer progression is substantially halted with this diet. KF: How long does it take to see changes? TCC: It is not clear because carefully designed research in humans has not been done. However, we demonstrated and published findings showing that experimental progression of disease is at least suspended, even reversed, when tumors are clearly present. KF: Consider a person who has been eating poorly his whole life; is there still hope that a dietary change can make a big difference? Or is everything already in motion? TCC: Yes, a variety of evidence shows that cancers and non-cancers alike can be stopped even after consuming a poor diet earlier in life. This effect is equivalent to treatment, a very exciting concept. KF: This is sounding like it's a cure for cancer; is that the case? TCC: Yes. The problem in this area of medicine is that traditional doctors are so focused on the use of targeted therapies (chemo, surgery, radiation) that they refuse to even acknowledge the use of therapies like nutrition and are loathe to even want to do proper research in this area. So, in spite of the considerable evidence--theoretical and practical--to support a beneficial nutritional effect, every effort will be made to discredit it. It's a self-serving motive. KF: What else do you recommend one does to avoid, stop, or reverse cancer? TCC: A good diet, when coupled with other health promoting activities like exercise, adequate fresh air and sunlight, good water and sleep, will be more beneficial. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. For help on how to lean into a plant based diet, check out my blog post here; and for recipes click here. For more information about diet and cancer, visit tcolincampbell.org. This Blogger's Books from Amazon indiebound The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss by Kathy Freston * Health * chronic conditions * Diet * Cáncer I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... 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[trans.gif] Mindfulness Meditation May Soothe Inflammation [trans.gif] Presidential Health Lessons: The Obamas' Greatest Health... [trans.gif] Start With Heart: 3 Steps To A... [trans.gif] Preventing and Treating Influenza With Natural Medicines [display_comments_title.gif] * Comments * 485 * Pending Comments * 0 * View FAQ Comments are closed for this entry Community Notice: We've made some changes to our badge program, including the addition of our newest badge: Community Curator. View All Favorites Bloggers Recency | Popularity Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) CindyAustinInLA 1 Fans 04:04 PM on 11/06/2009 I’m a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this DVD that features Kathy Freston called “The Path of Wellness & Healing” at a conference and it’s the best resource i have EVER seen for anyone with breast cancer or their families. My husband was given SO MANY BOOKS and who has the time to read when you’re dealing with something like this? This DVD was a one-stop shop that walks you through the entire bc experience with celeb survivors like Sheryl Crow and Christina Applegate and the world’s greatest doctors like Deepak Chopra and Dean Ornish. You’ll learn, you’l be inspired, you’ll probably cry and you might even laugh! Check it out!!! http://breastcancerdvd.org. CindyAustinInLA: Iâm a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/CindyAustinInLA/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_34079828.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 01:46 AM on 11/07/2009 That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. Everyone should watch it. Then it gives you access to other related videos that you cannot find elsewhere. Here is a University of California video about cancer and vitamin D. It shows that the latest research demonstrates that vitamin D can greatly reduce cancer rates including breast cancer. If enough people watch this video, it can greatly reduce the cancer that exists. It shows that the amounts of vitamin D needed to greatly reduce your chance of getting cancer is much more than the amount needed to prevent rickets or bone problems. It also tells how to find out just how much you need. It also has side effect of lowering your chances of getting the flu. You can even get free vitamin D from sunlight. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQ-qekFoi-o&feature=player_embedded# whizkid7: That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_34106139.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Jamsco 0 Fans 07:31 PM on 10/30/2009 I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has been shown to be healthier than starving yourself on plant leaves and flaxseeds. My dad was diagnosed with stage 1 colon cancer and did the Budwig Protocol without orthodox treatments and was dead in a year. I believe the war on cancer by the establishment is a joke, there are effective cancer treatments other than chemo and radiation, (Ronald Reagan was a good example). You should avoid sugars as well when diagnosed with cancer. I also believe many of these natural cure websites are ran by left-wing extremists with pro-animal, anti-corporation agendas(except when they make money of course). Ancient people, native tribes, eskimos were all fish and meat eaters(omnivores). According to the quacks you should only eat raw fruits and vegetables, nothing else! Meat and fish with fruits and vegetables is healthy with exercise. Increased chemicals in foods, water, meats, shampoos, ect i beleive are the real culprits in rising cancer rates. These alternative quacks make big money themselves with their water ionizers, supplements, ect. Be careful of these plant-based diet claims, some of these treatments have only 5% cure rates. Many alternative claims contradict each other if you study them. Jamsco: I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33700928.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 09:25 AM on 11/04/2009 Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as much as one person being cured by an alternative cure. They both mean nothing except to make you prejudiced against alternative medicine. For example if a fat person killed my father, then I may become prejudiced against fat people. The Eskimos have an average life span of only 60 years. John Hopkins Medical School says that cancer is a disease of many factors. They have broccoli sprouts in food stores that they have patented by making them extra high in sulforophane-- a cacner fighting phytochemical. Their Brassica Foundation is studying plants to use for cures for cancer and other diseases. As far as many factors, that means the pollution from the air, the pollution in your house and many other things can affect cancer. For example someone who does not smoke can get lung cancer from second hand smoke. http://www.graviolaleaves.com There is a University of California video on youtube about cancer and vitamin D. It show that vitamin D is very effective at preventing cancer according to recent studies. whizkid7: Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_33919345.html History | Permalink | Share it Jamsco 0 Fans 02:41 PM on 11/04/2009 You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against alternative cures. I said the governments war on cancer is a joke. The reason for my post is to expose the people and websites behind this vegetarian movement being pushed down our throats. Many studies contradict other studies. Vegans will say things that are true and leave out many other things that are true that don't support what they say. I rarely see omnivores attacking vegetarians, it is always the other way around. If your way is so great why are many types of cancers and other illnesses more common with vegetarians. Why do vegetarians still make up about 35% of all cancer diagnosis' even though there are fewer of them in society? The omnivores with the "cancer rates", yous' don't consider other lifestyle factors that i'm sure contribute to them getting various ailments. This vegetarian agenda is about a much broader agenda to push their extremist left-wing agenda and to eventually restrict what we eat, to ban guns and hunting, and their anti-capitalist agenda. Jamsco: You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33941923.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. There are More Comments on this Thread. Click Here To See them All spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… KJcured 1 Fans 10:08 AM on 10/28/2009 I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. In Feb. of this year I was diagnosed with STAGE IV IDC breast cancer: multiple tumors in my right breast, multiple tumors in the lymph nodes of my right arm pit, multiple tumors behind my sternum and a large cancerous mass in the bone of my sternum. I began eating mostly fruits & veggies in March of this year and as of my latest PET scan in August, the mass in the bone of my sternum is GONE, the tumors behind my sternum are gone and I'm down to a single much reduced tumor in my right breast and a single much reduced tumor in my right arm pit! I have had no chemo, radiation or other chemical treatment. I am proud to say that we are ALL capable of curing our own disease... with information! Thanks to the author for spreading this life saving news. KCB / Fayetteville, Georgia KJcured: I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/KJcured/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_33549468.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 06:53 PM on 10/12/2009 I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on this article and I find that the level of misunderstood, misinterpreted comment alarming. It is clear to me that most folks really do not have any basic grounding in science. Campbell's work in the 1980s - BEFORE he emabrked on the China study showed that the major protein in cow's milk - CASEIN - is a promoter of cancer! Its is NOT a carcinogen in its own right. Then there was a thread about Kefir ( a fermented milk product and one of many from the Balkans and Eastern Europe). Somehow the writer has got the idea that casein is OK after all - its in Kefir and the longevity of people in the Balkans shows its OK. A quick Google Scholar seacrch will get you to the research. Casein is digested by the bacteria in kefir. Go back and read Cambpells book. Get your science correct! renew2: I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32689809.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 08:10 AM on 10/11/2009 I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have started on the crits. I am hardly surprised at the crits - Campbell is reporting on stuff that is controversial to say the very least. I do not intend to comment on his credibility nor on the crits but offer this. We evolved as hunter gatherers and as such we would have eaten a diet that contained the occasional meat, nuts, berries, fruit and any other plant based material found ( by trial and error) to be non-toxic. This would have gone on for millenia. I venture to suggest that at no time along this pathway did we consume such large quantities of milk other than that delivered via breast feeding. If cow's milk casein is playing an unwanted role in cancer it might well be because of its "recent" appearance in our diet. renew2: I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32610577.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 01:09 AM on 09/29/2009 (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do find them useful as a lifestyle study subgroup compared to the general population). One article claims SVA's live to an average age of 88: here is a press story: http://www.chicagotribune.com/topic/sns-health-aging-centenarians,0,300 9292.story?track=rss-topicgallery. That is a 28 year difference compared to the 80% meat/fat diet Inuit. By the way, I do work in the health field serving the native "Indian" population. My experience tells me some significant changes need to be made in their diet and lifestyle - of great concern is the incredible epidemic in obesity related type II diabetes (reaching 80-100% of the adult population in some tribes), significant problems with heart disease, and in the increased rate of cancer compared to the general population. The natives of today do not look at all the same as their elders in the old turn of the century black and white photographs! Here is another link on a 2001 study: http://lifetwo.com/production/node/20070107-longevity-seventh-day-adven tists-life-expectancy Note on the above study - the life expectancy comparing vegetarian SVA vs. non-vegetarian SVA's. The difference is minimal based on diet, although statistically significant...2-2.5 years. Other lifestyle differences have the greater impact (9 years or so) - controlled weight vs. obesity, daily exercise or not, smoking history, and a daily bowl of nuts (LOL). Cerrec: (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828831.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 06:11 PM on 09/28/2009 Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. No study showed that with meat. There was no mention of the 500,000 people study that showed that meat causes cancer. http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/03/23/healthmag.red.meat.lifespan/index. html Chuck_Bluestein: Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31804828.html History | Permalink | Share it PublickStews 0 Fans 08:34 PM on 09/28/2009 Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? That study doesn't isolate the variable at all. It simply lumps everyone together based on meat consumption. Gee, you think there is a chance that the people who ate the most bacon and sausage ALSO ate lots of other crappy foods, and probably didn't eat a lot of vegetables and fruits, and probably ate in caloric excess? That study is completely meaningless. All it tells us is what we already know: that eating McDonalds instead of whole foods is bad for you. All these nonsense, anti-meat studies have a fatal flaw. They all rely on the false assumption that people with either eat lots of meat and no vegetables, or no meat and lots of vegetables. The best diet to prevent disease and avoid obesity is lean meat, lots of vegetables, and whole grains. The worst diet is processed garbage and American fast food. Most "plant based" diets fall somewhere in between. PublickStews: Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31814807.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 05:53 PM on 09/30/2009 That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) that is one of the 27 National Institutes of Health (NIH). So I do know what it means to isolate one variable. This study cost a great deal of money and was with half a billion people. Just kidding. It was only with half a million people. Right after it was done, it was all over the TV news. So you are saying that you are right and they are wrong. Well actually on this post, I started a thread (I am GINKGO on it) that complained about the same thing and said that if you change more than one variable then you do not know what caused the change. Now I had many people disagree with me, as you can see by looking at it. So what did I do? I gave them website after website after website that explained that exact thing-- called the scientific method. http://www.stevepavlina.com/forums/health-fitness/33137-most-health-pro blems-caused-lack-intelligence.html But then there are no phytochemicals in animal foods whereas plant foods contain thousands of phytochemicals like resveratrol (in dark grapes), lycopene (in tomatoes and watermelon) and sulphoropahane that is in broccoli sprouts. They have already identified over 900 phytochemicals, but who is counting? Chuck_Bluestein: That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31948770.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PublickStews 0 Fans 05:02 PM on 09/28/2009 Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, knee-jerk hippie readers who watch Oprah and shop at Whole Foods. Since Preston has written a book about "cleansing" (one of the biggest buzzwords in new age nonsense), this isn't surprising. Nowhere in the article does Preston acknowledge that Campbell's work has been widely criticized, or that his data barely matches up with his pronouncements. Nowhere do they mention that whey protein has been shown to have a protective effect, which throws his generalizations into question. And nowhere does she address the fact, documented by countless anthropologists, that indigenous hunter-gatherer societies like the Alaskan Inuit (who consumed a diet almost wholly comprised of animal protein, with 80% of calories coming from fat) had microscopic rates of cancer and heart disease. The American diet is deeply flawed, but it's not because of animal protein. If your diet consists mainly of lean meat, vegetables, and whole grains, and you are not eating in caloric excess, you are not at high risk for cancer or heart disease. To equate someone who eats chicken breasts and broccoli with someone who devours Big Macs on a regular basis is just plain intellectually dishonest. PublickStews: Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31799360.html History | Permalink | Share it Cerrec 0 Fans 01:08 AM on 09/29/2009 The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular disease increases with age, statistically accelerating after the 5th decade of life. The average lifespan of the Inuit population group is sixty, which is significantly eight years less than the Canadian average. So, those who think the Inuit are doing something right...you might want to rethink this. Here is a link - posting current dietary/lifesytle gov guidelines in the prevention of the above: http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=15&doc_id=5620&nbr=379 0 Cerrec: The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828822.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… seanpcooper 0 Fans 04:17 PM on 09/28/2009 HEY – read this! For the past 1.5 years or so I have inadvertently used myself as somewhat of a test bed that has pitted the low fat, plant based (high carbohydrate) diet against the Atkins, low carb, lifestyle. I say “lifestyle” because it is not a diet. I didn’t need to loose weight I was just concerned about high cholesterol. I first bought the China study as well as Dr. Caldwell Esselstyn’s book and followed them religiously for about 8 months. Everything was low fat (or non fat) plant based and absolutely no meat or dairy or even fish. Well after 8 months, I came down with Type 1 Diabetes! The carb load was so great that my pancrease crapped out on me. There are new studies now (google them) noting that a low fat diet equates to a high carb diet and that often ends up in Diabetes. My sugar levels were off the chart. I felt like suing Dr. Esselstyn and Campbell. I quickly droped the diet and Bought Dr. Bernsteins book about Diabeties. His approach was more or less that of Atkins or the Edeas’ Protein Power. My sugar levels were quickly brought down and in line with a “normal” non diabetic and what’s better – my cholesterol improved dramatically – go figure! I will never go back to “low fat” plant based. Basically it is pretty simple: my body now burns fat (yes bacon fat) instead of sugar (from bread). Interveiw Gary Taubes...please! seanpcooper: HEY â read this! For the past 1.5 years or http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/seanpcooper/a-cure-for-cancer-eati ng_b_298282_31795858.html History | Permalink | Share it Alvarask 419 Fans 11:56 PM on 09/28/2009 Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet or you will overload your pancreas. I did this to myself for years. I now understand that I need to eat meat WITH some animal fats to help regulate my blood sugar, while limiting white starches like rice and potatoes (I`m learning to use them more as a garnish than as a third or more of the meal), plus as many fruit and vegetables as my body tells me it wants when it has neither low nor high blood sugar. I had to work this out for myself. No doctor helped. Alvarask: Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Alvarask/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31826193.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… HUFFPOST SUPER USER rnm 52 Fans 10:34 PM on 10/04/2009 Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else was going on with you and how you got it has absolutely nothing to do with what you are proposing here. Please go do some very careful research on all of this because you are speaking out of complete ignorance on a plant based diet. TOTAL IGNORANCE.... rnm: Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/rnm/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_298 282_32216706.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… JamesNYC 8 Fans 03:18 PM on 09/28/2009 This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein causes cancer. It simply claims over and over again that there is overwhelming evidence. What journal are these findings published in? JamesNYC: This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/JamesNYC/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31791334.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER YeWight 94 Fans 01:12 PM on 09/28/2009 China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific scrutiny over the years, placing in doubt many of its conclusions. The study, nevertheless, had an interesting approach and design, but many flaws. You can research the subject for yourself, but here's just one article to tickle your fancy: http://www.babushkaskefir.com.au/historyofkefir.html The above is something that radically contradicts China Study casein claims. People in the Caucasus mountains are known to be some of the healthiest, longest living on the planet. The problem is - their diet is heavily based on a dairy product (kefir), which according to the China Study is bound to kill you (prematurely). Go figure. What will more than likely determine your future is in your genes, not so much in your diet. I have several nonagenarians in the family whose diet had always been heavy on dairy and meat and who happen to live long and healthy lives. And they are not an isolated example. Over the years, I have come across a number of families and individuals with similar histories and similar outcomes. YeWight: China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/YeWight/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_31782513.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… huntleyrussell 154 Fans 12:25 PM on 09/28/2009 Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect on cancer in our society because we consume so much of it. The average American consumes far more protein than required to meet our daily nutritional requirements (as much as 3 to 4 times as much in certain parts of the country). Protein is essentially for muscle growth, however the level or protein intake for Americans suggest we are all body builders, which we are not. Therefore, the excess protein in our diet becomes stored, primarily as fat, as our bodies are not able to use it all for growth. As cancer cells mutate, they require fuel to grow and expand. Eating the amount of meat we do, all of the excess fuel in our bodies provides a volatile situation for the growth of cancer. All of this is complicated exponentially by the use of hormones and the improper feeding of animal protein to our livestock, which pollutes a vast amount of meat and dairy products in the United States. A vegetarian diet provides the proper daily nutritional intake, as well as decreasing the risk of cancer by eliminating the fuel for its growth. huntleyrussell: Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/huntleyrussell/a-cure-for-cancer-e ating_b_298282_31779366.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PaleoMan 1 Fans 11:27 AM on 09/28/2009 I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, and his data on animal protein and cancer. While the link between casein and cancer seemed fairly well established, it seemed like much more of a leap to conclude that all animal protein causes or promotes cancer and there seemed to be little scientific support for this broader conclusion. Granted, some data on processed meats supports an increased cancer risk, but that might be explained by the nitrites and processing. There is a little known self published book written by DeLamar Gibbons, MD, who practiced medicine in the Four Corners Region on the Navajo Reservation for many decades. The book is entitled, Their Secrets: Why the Navaho Indians Never Get Cancer. Gibbons insisted that he had reviewed the records of 25,000 admissions to the Monument Valley Hospital and several other hospitals as well in outlying communities for the decades in question and had not found a single instance of a Navajo who practiced traditional taboos ever getting cancer of any kind. Gibbons sought to explore the differences that might account for the negligible cancer rates in traditional living Navajos. He found that dairy products were avoided. But grassfed meat was eaten in abundance, especially lamb and mutton. And grassfed meat is very high in conjugated linoleoic acid (CLA), which inhibits development and growth of cancer. In any event, the Navajos in question had anything but a vegan or vegetarian diet. PaleoMan: I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PaleoMan/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31775784.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER simplify 272 Fans 12:17 PM on 09/28/2009 Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. simplify: Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/simplify/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31778827.html History | Permalink | Share it photo multi LA 32 Fans 05:24 PM on 09/28/2009 I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned about what other people are eating... Since I've became a vegetarian you wouldn't believe the amount of backlash I have received from meat eaters about my eating choices.. People eat meat around me all the time and I don't criticize them.. multi_LA: I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/multi_LA/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31801119.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:51 AM on 09/28/2009 Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high fat dietary choices which are counter to our past million years of evolution and I believe we are suffering from this disparity. We have a coming disaster approaching us at one generation speed...a huge diabetes/obesity epidemic that will cost us billions of dollars to "doctor" without preventing/curing - out of the 1/3 children predicted to "go" type II diabetic, a sizable percentage will need dialysis 3x weekly as adults to survive! This is a billions dollar proposition, so something is going to have to change - we can't go down that road, folks. It was assumed (once) that the developement of agriculture in human society was a positive development leading towards increased health/longevity in the population...that assumption has been proved false...the roaming hunter/gather lifestyle has been proven to be better. Homo S. once had to be extremely active in order to survive...we were lean, mean, fighting machines...now we pack ourselves into a suv, drive to Walmart, walk around with a shipping cart, fill it to the brim, pack it home, and pack it in...while we sit front side to a tv/computer. Having said this, going out to my greenhouse for some fresh tomatoes, basil, and swiss chard....and it's time for me to go out for a long walk and pick up some wild pine nuts....and a brown trout or two... Good luck my fellow primates! Cerrec: Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31771059.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:49 AM on 09/28/2009 There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with mainland native americans, who presently suffer high rates of diabetes, heart disease, and obesity on our "modern world diet". When they have returned to their traditional diet/food gathering lifestyle = fewer calories, greater activity, less saturated fat ....basically pinenuts, seed grass, wild plants, minimal wild lean meat etc. there has been a statistically significant drop in signs of disease processes compared to their "modern lifestyle compatriots". What we have going on is far more complex than simply meat vs. vegan diets, although I think meat/dairy based diets have significant health issues. I would propose that the healthiest diet would be omnivorous tilted towards plants/seeds w/minimal amount of lean wild grown meat and minimal dairy - as close to possible to our 1 million year old natural diet that we are biologically adapted for (take away the extremes of Inuit/Alaskan native artic tundra). Noted are these human phys characteristics - relatively small jaw w/ small caninines, plant/seed grinding molars (not shearing molars as in predatory meat eating animals), a small stomach w/moderate ph acid & a long intestinal tract designed for extracting optimum amount of nutrition (calories) from plant based foods. Cerrec: There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31770977.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) new comment(s) on this entry — Click to refresh spinner Loading comments… TAKE CARE OF YOUR SMILE Powered By ZocDoc Sponsor Generated Post * 9 Resolutions You Shouldn't Have Made For 2013 (And What To Do About Them Now) + Quick Read | + Comments (18) | + 01.15.2013 FOLLOW US * Facebook * Twitter * Apple * Android * Blackberry * Email * Rss Connect with your friends Check out stories you might like, and see what your friends are sharing! 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All rights reserved. * Part of AOL Lifestyle Quantcast HuffPost Lightbox #Grasscity.com Forums RSS Feed Grasscity.com Forums - Indoor Marijuana Growing - RSS Feed Grasscity.com - the best counter-culture community User Name User Name_ Password __________ Log in * > register! * > lost your password * grasscity shop * grasscity community * smoking and usage * chill out zone * marijuana cultivation * marijuana news and discussions * Forum Help Blogs Recent Entries Best Entries Best Blogs Blog List Search Blogs Go Back Grasscity.com Forums > MARIJUANA CULTIVATION > Indoor Marijuana Growing Reload this Page why is my plant taking forever to grow? Register Blogs FAQ Photo Gallery Calendar Search Today's Posts Mark Forums Read Notices Grasscity.com 10% Discount Like us on Facebook for up to date news regarding product updates, Grasscity discount coupons, forum news, competitions and give aways. Keep in touch with Grasscity via your favorite social network. 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My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe Reply View First Unread View First Unread LinkBack Thread Tools Search this Thread #1 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:45 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe a foot. i super cropped one time and i accidently topped her. i had ph issuse which made fan leafs curl in and pretty much die so i pulled them off. im using FFHF 150hps light and i just trans planted maybe a week ago to a 3 gallon pot. when i transplanted i think it was root bound and i removed the lower 2 branches to feed the top 2 node sites. what is wrong? did i put to much stress on her? and im using fox farm nutes Reply With Quote #2 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:47 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ and i fixed my ph issuses Reply With Quote #3 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:50 PM kenny357 is offline kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 Registered User kenny357's Avatar Join Date: Dec 2010 Posts: 117 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ What size pot did you start in? Let the roots fill out that new pot a bit and she'll probably blow up. Reply With Quote #4 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:35 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. Reply With Quote #5 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:43 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ you waited way to long on transplant and thats your problem. Your canopy can only grow as much as the roots grow my friend. I transplant to a 5 gallon wide after 1 week in the 1 gallon pot cause if you wait to long your plant wont grow. considering you just got to transplanting it you had Ph problems your plant is probably mad stressed. IMO scrap it and start over especially if you haven't started the flowering stage. It takes 3 weeks for my cutting to go from 4 inches to 15 inches in three weeks time with a 150 watt HPS with AN nutes. Even when I was using and LED for veg and fox farm nutes my plants would get over 15 inches in no more than four weeks. IMO it would be a waste of time to continue threw with the flower since it has struggled so much through the veg. so i say scrap it start over and you will be in a better position in four weeks my friends. little fyi I had to use almost full strength of fox farms trio and powders according to their schedule every watering instead of just two times a week, didn't burn it. Ph water to 6.2 as well and transplant at the most ten days after being in a one gallon pot suggest five gallon wide and if you can't do that get three gallon wide pots. Reply With Quote #6 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:46 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. there you go man it was root bound for all you know the roots could be wrapped all around each other which will cause problems later on in the grow. your plant is probably so stressed that it wont even start to grow in the new pot for a couple days to week. Reply With Quote #7 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:19 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Reply With Quote #8 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:31 PM Bkinboston is offline Bkinboston humbly walks among the Blades Bkinboston Registered User Bkinboston's Avatar Join Date: Jul 2012 Location: Boston/Brooklyn Posts: 67 Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Yea it should bounce back in a week , you might have to baby it until. Reply With Quote #9 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:42 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ will do thank you everyone!!!! Reply With Quote Reply << Previous Thread | Next Thread >> Thread Tools Search this Thread Show Printable Version Show Printable Version Email this Page Email this Page Search this Thread: ____________________ Go Advanced Search Posting Rules You may not post new threads You may not post replies You may not post attachments You may not edit your posts __________________________________________________________________ BB code is On Smilies are On [IMG] code is On HTML code is Off Trackbacks are On Pingbacks are On Refbacks are Off __________________________________________________________________ Forum Rules All times are GMT +1. The time now is 11:18 PM. 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Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Welcome to The Green Wall & Green Roof Source Plant Connection Unveils Largest Living Wall in Baltimore Click for Full Size View On September 28, a more than two thousand square-foot exterior G-O[2]^TM Living Wall was unveiled on the building façade of One East Pratt Street in Baltimore, making it the largest living wall in Maryland. The G-O[2]^TM Living Wall has some important features that will help advance the success of living architecture, including the use of a unique, cutting edge, remote monitoring system. This technology was first installed in another very large iconic living wall in Pittsburgh during a complete overhaul in May of 2012 that included an upgraded G-O[2]^TM Living Wall system, irrigation system, and state-of-the-art remote monitoring sensors provided by Plant Connection, Inc. This valuable data recorded in two of the largest exterior living walls in the United States will be studied and used to help inform and further advance the greater green wall industry as a whole. View Newsletter. American Cancer Society Hope Lodge G-O[2]^TM Living Wall Click for Full Size View Plant Connection had the wonderful privilege and honor to create a living wall at the American Cancer Society Hope Lodge, Jerome L. Greene Family Center in Manhattan. Hope Lodge wanted to expand on their outdoor terrace and provide guests the opportunity to connect with nature for therapeutic benefits. They felt the addition of a G-O[2]^TM Living Wall would enhance the space and further aid in creating a peaceful communal area. Thanks to their generous support, PNC sponsored the living wall, drawing inspiration from their iconic design at PNC Bank in Pittsburgh, PA. The PNC green wall planting design was originally created by Kari Elwell Katzander of Mingo Design. View Newsletter. Department of Environment and Natural Resources G-O2 Living Walls Click for Full Size View G-O[2]^TM Living Walls were used to help make the DENR building the "greenest" complex in Raleigh. The green walls represent one of many components of the Green Square Complex that illustrate the most current sustainable design strategies. The living walls were designed to be multidimensional, meaning they wrap around the wall sides. It is hoped that the Green Square Complex will serve as a national model of environmental efficiency and sustainability. View Newsletter. Canisius College G-O[2]^TM Living Wall Click for Full Size View Canisius College installed two 8' x 20' G-O[2]^TM Living Walls. The living walls greet visitors to Science Hall and are located in busy hallways between labs and classrooms. They add life and most importantly oxygen to the populated space, where students and professors may spend their entire day indoors. These green walls also act as a visual reminder that science and nature are infinitely intertwined. View Newsletter. NYU Law Goes Green with G-O[2]^TM Green Walls Click for Full Size View 22 Washington Square North is now the home of one of the Universitys greenest buildings, which received LEED Silver Certification. A 5-story G-O[2]^TM Green Wall of cascading plants provides the Law School with an innovative office environment. Set within a very small outdoor courtyard of less than 15 feet between the buildings, the green wall was designed to be enjoyed from inside. Instead of looking out to a blank brick wall, the offices on each of the floors now have a growing, green view mirroring their window. A glass elevator within the space offers an even greater vertical view, capturing each wall at different levels. Green Wall design by Plant Connection, Inc. Read NYU's Press Release. View Newsletter. The mgv pre-grown GroRoofs^TM modules are lightweight, affordable, and easy to install. Our pre-grown G-O[2]^TM Growall products can be used for interior or exterior vertical garden projects. We also offer green roof soil media and other green roof accessories. Call us today for help in planning your green roof or green wall project. Let our team of experts guide you through from concept to installation and maintenance of your next green roof or green wall. Stepables Banner Plant Connection Inc. are experienced growers and nursery representatives. Our 42-acre nursery in Eastern Long Island is home to larger, landscape-sized woody shrubs and trees. Proudly representing Quansett Nursery perennials, annuals, herbs, and Groundcovers. Van Essen Banner Riverhead, NY o Phone: 1-888-78PLANT o Fax: 631-722-8787 © 2013 Plant Connection, Inc. o Privacy Policy Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture The International Treaty has a new Website at www.planttreaty.org THE INTERNATIONAL TREATY ON PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE [arrowo.gif] official versions of the Treaty [arrowo.gif] video on the Treaty [arrowo.gif] signatures and ratifications [arrowo.gif] comments on compliance [arrowo.gif] Funding Strategy questionnaire [arrowo.gif] study on Compliance [arrowo.gif] Comments on compliance and the Funding Strategy, following the request of the Open-ended Working Group [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are crucial in feeding the world's population. They are the raw material that farmers and plant breeders use to improve the quality and productivity of our crops. The future of agriculture depends on international cooperation and on the open exchange of the crops and their genes that farmers all over the world have developed and exchanged over 10,000 years. No country is sufficient in itself. All depend on crops and the genetic diversity within these crops from other countries and regions. After seven years of negotiations, the FAO Conference (through Resolution 3/2001) adopted the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, in November 2001. This legally-binding Treaty covers all plant genetic resources relevant for food and agriculture. It is in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Treaty is vital in ensuring the continued availability of the plant genetic resources that countries will need to feed their people. We must conserve for future generations the genetic diversity that is essential for food and agriculture. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] What are "plant genetic resources for food and agriculture"? The Treaty defines them as "any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture". [arrowgr.gif] What are the Treaty's objectives? Its objectives are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security. [arrowgr.gif] What is the Multilateral System for Access and Benefit-Sharing? Through the Treaty, countries agree to establish an efficient, effective and transparent Multilateral System to facilitate access to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and to share the benefits in a fair and equitable way. The Multilateral System applies to over 64 major crops and forages. The Governing Body of the Treaty, which will be composed of the countries that have ratified it, will set out the conditions for access and benefit-sharing in a "Material Transfer Agreement". [arrowgr.gif] What are the conditions for access in the Multilateral System? Resources may be obtained from the Multilateral System for utilization and conservation in research, breeding and training. When a commercial product is developed using these resources, the Treaty provides for payment of an equitable share of the resulting monetary benefits, if this product may not be used without restriction by others for further research and breeding. If others may use it, payment is voluntary. [arrowgr.gif] How will benefits be shared? The Treaty provides for sharing the benefits of using plant genetic resources for food and agriculture through information-exchange, access to and the transfer of technology, and capacity-building. It also foresees a funding strategy to mobilize funds for activities, plans and programmes the help, above all, small farmers in developing countries. This funding strategy also includes the share of the monetary benefits paid under the Multilateral System. [arrowgr.gif] How does the Treaty protect Farmers' Rights? The Treaty recognizes the enormous contribution that farmers and their communities have made and continue to make to the conservation and development of plant genetic resources. This is the basis for Farmers' Rights, which include the protection of traditional knowledge, and the right to participate equitably in benefit-sharing and in national decision-making about plant genetic resources. It gives governments the responsibility for implementing these rights. [arrowgr.gif] Who benefits from the Treaty and how? All benefit, in many ways: [arrowo.gif] Farmers and their communities, through Farmers' Rights; [arrowo.gif] Consumers, because of a greater variety of foods, and of agriculture products, as well as increased food security; [arrowo.gif] The scientific community, through access to the plant genetic resources crucial for research and plant breeding; [arrowo.gif] International Agricultural Research Centres, whose collections the Treaty puts on a safe and long-term legal footing; [arrowo.gif] Both the public and private sectors, which are assured access to a wide range of genetic diversity for agricultural development; and [arrowo.gif] The environment, and future generations, because the Treaty will help conserve the genetic diversity necessary to face unpredictable environmental changes, and future human needs. [arrowgr.gif] When did the Treaty come into force? The Treaty came into force on 29 June 2004, ninety days after forty governments had ratified it. Governments that have ratified it will make up its Governing Body. At its first meeting, this Governing Body will address important questions, such as the level, form and manner of monetary payments on commercialization, a standard Material Transfer Agreement for plant genetic resources, mechanisms to promote compliance with the Treaty, and the funding strategy. [arrowgr.gif] What's next? Each country that ratifies will then develop the legislation and regulations it needs to implement the Treaty. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowo.gif] Official versions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [arrowo.gif] Video on the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [arab.gif] [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] Back to the Commission's Welcome page __________________________________________________________________ Agriculture 21 CGRFA Home Page [tag_logo.jpg]-Submit [funfacts_up.jpg]-Submit [treecareinfo_up.jpg]-Submit [faq_up.jpg]-Submit [mediasource_up.jpg]-Submit [findservice_up.jpg]-Submit [resources_up.jpg]-Submit [top_right_image.jpg]-Submit Tree Care Information [bottom_right_leaf.jpg]-Submit Skip Navigation Links Why Hire an Arborist Benefits of Trees Value of Trees Tree Selection Buying High Quality Trees Avoiding Tree and Utility Conflicts New Tree Planting Mature Tree Care Plant Health Care Palms Trees and Turf Proper Mulching Techniques Pruning Young Trees Pruning Mature Trees Why Topping Hurts Trees Insect and Disease Problems Recognizing Tree Hazards Avoiding Tree Damage During Construction Treatment of Trees Damaged by Construction Contact Us ____________________ Search Skip Navigation Links Home > Tree Care Information > New Tree Planting New Tree Planting Think of the tree you just purchased as a lifetime investment. How well your tree, and investment, grows depends on the type of tree and location you select for planting, the care you provide when the tree is planted, and follow-up care the tree receives after planting. Planting the Tree The ideal time to plant trees and shrubs is during the dormant season and in the fall after leaf drop or early spring before budbreak. Weather conditions are cool and allow plants to establish roots in the new location before spring rains and summer heat stimulate new top growth. However, trees properly cared for in the nursery or garden center, and given the appropriate care during transport to prevent damage, can be planted throughout the growing season. In tropical and subtropical climates where trees grow year round, any time is a good time to plant a tree, provided that sufficient water is available. In either situation, proper handling during planting is essential to ensure a healthy future for new trees and shrubs. Before you begin planting your tree, be sure you have had all underground utilities located prior to digging. If the tree you are planting is balled or bare root, it is important to understand that its root system has been reduced by 90 to 95 percent of its original size during transplanting. As a result of the trauma caused by the digging process, trees commonly exhibit what is known as transplant shock. Containerized trees may also experience transplant shock, particularly if they have circling roots that must be cut. Transplant shock is indicated by slow growth and reduced vigor following transplanting. Proper site preparation before and during planting coupled with good follow-up care reduces the amount of time the plant experiences transplant shock and allows the tree to quickly establish in its new location. Carefully follow nine simple steps, and you can significantly reduce the stress placed on the plant at the time of planting. 1. Dig a shallow, broad planting hole. Make the hole wide, as much as three times the diameter of the root ball but only as deep as the root ball. It is important to make the hole wide because the roots on the newly establishing tree must push through surrounding soil in order to establish. On most planting sites in new developments, the existing soils have been compacted and are unsuitable for healthy root growth. Breaking up the soil in a large area around the tree provides the newly emerging roots room to expand into loose soil to hasten establishment. 2. Identify the trunk flare. The trunk flare is where the roots spread at the base of the tree. This point should be partially visible after the tree has been planted (see diagram). If the trunk flare is not partially visible, you may have to remove some soil from the top of the root ball. Find it so you can determine how deep the hole needs to be for proper planting. 3. Remove tree container for containerized trees. Carefully cutting down the sides of the container may make this easier. Inspect the root ball for circling roots and cut or remove them. Expose the trunk flare, if necessary. 4. Place the tree at the proper height. Before placing the tree in the hole, check to see that the hole has been dug to the proper depth and no more. The majority of the roots on the newly planted tree will develop in the top 12 inches of soil. If the tree is planted too deeply, new roots will have difficulty developing because of a lack of oxygen. It is better to plant the tree a little high, 2 to 3 inches above the base of the trunk flare, than to plant it at or below the original growing level. This planting level will allow for some settling (see diagram). To avoid damage when setting the tree in the hole, always lift the tree by the root ball and never by the trunk. 5. Straighten the tree in the hole. Before you begin backfilling, have someone view the tree from several directions to confirm that the tree is straight. Once you begin backfilling, it is difficult to reposition the tree. 6. Fill the hole gently but firmly. Fill the hole about one-third full and gently but firmly pack the soil around the base of the root ball. Then, if the root ball is wrapped, cut and remove any fabric, plastic, string, and wire from around the trunk and root ball to facilitate growth (see diagram). Be careful not to damage the trunk or roots in the process. [new_tree_plant.rvsd.jpg] Fill the remainder of the hole, taking care to firmly pack soil to eliminate air pockets that may cause roots to dry out. To avoid this problem, add the soil a few inches at a time and settle with water. Continue this process until the hole is filled and the tree is firmly planted. It is not recommended to apply fertilizer at the time of planting. 7. Stake the tree, if necessary. If the tree is grown and dug properly at the nursery, staking for support will not be necessary in most home landscape situations. Studies have shown that trees establish more quickly and develop stronger trunk and root systems if they are not staked at the time of planting. However, protective staking may be required on sites where lawn mower damage, vandalism, or windy conditions are concerns. If staking is necessary for support, there are three methods to choose among: staking, guying, and ball stabilizing. One of the most common methods is staking. With this method, two stakes used in conjunction with a wide, flexible tie material on the lower half of the tree will hold the tree upright, provide flexibility, and minimize injury to the trunk (see diagram). Remove support staking and ties after the first year of growth. 8. Mulch the base of the tree. Mulch is simply organic matter applied to the area at the base of the tree. It acts as a blanket to hold moisture, it moderates soil temperature extremes, and it reduces competition from grass and weeds. Some good choices are leaf litter, pine straw, shredded bark, peat moss, or composted wood chips. A 2- to 4-inch layer is ideal. More than 4 inches may cause a problem with oxygen and moisture levels. When placing mulch, be sure that the actual trunk of the tree is not covered. Doing so may cause decay of the living bark at the base of the tree. A mulch-free area, 1 to 2 inches wide at the base of the tree, is sufficient to avoid moist bark conditions and prevent decay. 9. Provide follow-up care. Keep the soil moist but not soaked; overwatering causes leaves to turn yellow or fall off. Water trees at least once a week, barring rain, and more frequently during hot weather. When the soil is dry below the surface of the mulch, it is time to water. Continue until mid-fall, tapering off for lower temperatures that require less-frequent watering. Other follow-up care may include minor pruning of branches damaged during the planting process. Prune sparingly immediately after planting and wait to begin necessary corrective pruning until after a full season of growth in the new location. After you have completed these nine simple steps, further routine care and favorable weather conditions will ensure that your new tree or shrub will grow and thrive. A valuable asset to any landscape, trees provide a long-lasting source of beauty and enjoyment for people of all ages. When questions arise about the care of your tree, be sure to consult your local ISA Certified Arborist or a tree care or garden center professional for assistance. The PHC Alternative Maintaining mature landscapes is a complicated undertaking. You may wish to consider a professional Plant Health Care (PHC) maintenance program, which is now available from many landscape care companies. A PHC program is designed to maintain plant vigor and should initially include inspections to detect and treat any existing problems that could be damaging or fatal. Thereafter, regular inspections and preventive maintenance will ensure plant health and beauty. E-mail inquiries: isa@isa-arbor.com (c) 1998, 2004 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED JULY 2005 Developed by the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), a non-profit organization supporting tree care research around the world and is dedicated to the care and preservation of shade and ornamental trees. For further information, contact: ISA, P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826-3129, USA. E-mail inquires: isa@isa-arbor.com © 2007 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED SEPTEMBER 2005 News What is an Arborist and How Can You Find One? From Planet Green a Discovery Company MORE >> Green Parking II: Putting Parking Lots to Work Green parking lots are defined as those that are designed to do environmental work. Parking lots should be designed to reduce the use of energy, improve environmental quality and to ensure more healthy conditions for people. Further, parking lots should be planned and designed to reflect regional landscape types. Plant materials and other materials of construction must be used in ways that will support this objective. MORE >> NADF Hardiness Zone Map Find out the right tree to plant where you live MORE >> Hot Topics "Hot Topic" press releases fro the USDA newsroom ranging from current pest alerts for specific regions of the United States to new trends in disease prevention and tree and plant care. MORE >> Don't Move Firewood! [dmf-logo-281-px.jpg] Camping Season is fast approaching. Please remember to not transport firewood. Tree-killing insects and diseases can lurk in firewood. These insects and diseases can't move far on their own, but when people move firewood they can jump hundreds of miles. New infestations destroy our forests, property values, and cost huge sums of money to control. MORE >> National Tree Benefits Calculator Make a simple estimation of the benefits individual street-side trees provide. With inputs of location, species and tree size, users will get an understanding of the environmental and economic value trees provide on an annual basis. For more detailed information on urban and community forest assessments, visit the i-Tree website. MORE >> National Register of Big Trees Big trees are symbols of all the good work trees do for the quality of the environment-and our quality of life. MORE >> [leaf_red_round.gif] "Of all man's works of art, a cathedral is greatest. A vast and majestic tree is greater than that." - Henry Ward Beecher Resources New Tree Planting Brochure Available through the ISA Web store Planting and Pruning Education An educational DVD for homeowner associations, government entities, libraries, or realtors with demonstrations on proper planting and pruning. Available for purchase online at Rocky Mountain ISA Planting With a Purpose Knowing when, what, where, and how to plant is essential to a tree's life span. And if you want trees in your yard to be assets that continually appreciate in value, keep these important tips from the International Society of Arboriculture in mind before, during, and after planting a tree.MORE >> © International Society of Arboriculture 2009 P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826 Email comments & questions to isa@isa-arbor.com #prev next The Plant Cell Skip to main page content * HOME * ABOUT * SUBMIT * SUBSCRIPTIONS * ADVERTISE * ARCHIVE * CONTACT US Quick Search [advanced] Author: ____________________ (e.g. Smith, JS) Keyword(s): ____________________ Year: ____________________ Vol: ____________________ Page: ____________________ Go User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Sign In Sign In * Life Technologies « Previous Table of Contents Next Article » * © 1999 American Society of Plant Physiologists Plant Vacuoles 1. Francis Marty1 1. Laboratoire de phytoBiologie Cellulaire, UPR ES 469, Université de Bourgogne, BP47 870, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France 1. ↵1 E-mail fmarty{at}u-bourgogne.fr; fax 33-3-80-39-62-87. Next Section INTRODUCTION The vacuoles of plant cells are multifunctional organelles that are central to cellular strategies of plant development. They share some of their basic properties with the vacuoles of algae and yeast and the lysosomes of animal cells. They are lytic compartments, function as reservoirs for ions and metabolites, including pigments, and are crucial to processes of detoxification and general cell homeostasis. They are involved in cellular responses to environmental and biotic factors that provoke stress. In the vegetative organs of the plant, they act in combination with the cell wall to generate turgor, the driving force for hydraulic stiffness and growth. In seeds and specialized storage tissues, they serve as sites for storing reserve proteins and soluble carbohydrates. In this way, vacuoles serve physical and metabolic functions that are essential to plant life. Plant cell vacuoles were discovered with the early microscope and, as indicated in the etymology of the word, originally defined as a cell space empty of cytoplasmic matter. Technical progress has variously altered the operating definition of the plant vacuole over time. Today, definitions continue to be colored by the tools and concepts brought to bear in any given study. Indeed, the combination of microscopy, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology is fundamental to research into the plant vacuole. In this review, vacuoles are provisionally defined as the intracellular compartments that arise as a terminal product of the secretory pathway in plant cells. They are ontogenetically and functionally linked with other components of the vacuolar apparatus (i.e., vacuoles and those membranous bodies that are either committed to becoming vacuolar or have immediately completed a vacuolar function). Experimental evidence suggests that material within the vacuolar system in plants derives confluently from both an intracellular biosynthetic pathway and a coordinated endocytotic pathway. The biogenetic pathways include (1) sorting of proteins destined for the vacuole away from those to be delivered to the cell surface after transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway; (2) endocytosis of materials from the plasma membrane; (3) autophagy pathways for vacuole formation; and (4) direct cytoplasm-to-vacuole delivery. Ultimately, sorting and targeting mechanisms ensure that specific proteins are faithfully assigned to conduct the vacuolar functions. The reader is referred to other contributions to this issue (i.e., Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999) and to previous reviews (Herman, 1994; Okita and Rogers, 1996; Bassham and Raikhel, 1997; Marty, 1997; Robinson and Hinz, 1997; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998; Herman and Larkins, 1999) for detailed information on specific aspects of vacuole biology. Previous SectionNext Section THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES Plant cell vacuoles are widely diverse in form, size, content, and functional dynamics, and a single cell may contain more than one kind of vacuole. Although major morphological differences were recorded by the very first microscopists, it has been commonly assumed that all vacuoles have the same origin and belong to a common group. However, with improvements in cell fractionation and biochemical analyses as well as in the use of new molecular probes, it has become possible to characterize specialized vacuolar compartments in the cells from a variety of tissues (Hoh et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997; Swanson et al., 1998; Webb, 1999, in this issue). In most cells from the vegetative tissues of the plant body, the central vacuole occupies much of the volume and is essential for much of the physiology of the organism. Among the many functions of this organelle are turgor maintenance, protoplasmic homeostasis, storage of metabolic products, sequestration of xenobiotics, and digestion of cytoplasmic constituents. In regard to the latter function, vacuoles are acidic and contain hydrolytic enzymes analogous to the lysosomal enzymes of animal cells. The membrane, or tonoplast, of such vacuoles contains the vegetative-specific aquaporin γ-TIP (for tonoplast intrinsic protein; Höfte et al., 1992; Marty-Mazars et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Barrieu et al., 1998; see below). In some cell types, defense or signal compounds are stored in the vacuole, particularly within specialized cells located in strategically favorable tissues such as the leaf epidermis. As early as last century, it was observed that many pigments (e.g., anthocyanins) are localized in the vacuoles of epidermal cells from flowers, leaves, and stems. Recent findings suggest that the membranes of such specialized vacuoles contain specific ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters (Rea et al., 1998). In contrast, reserve tissues of seeds and fruit contain vacuoles specialized in the storage of proteins (Okita and Rogers, 1996; Müntz, 1998; see Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). The membrane of the protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) contains the seed-specific aquaporin α-TIP (Höfte et al., 1992; Paris et al., 1996; Swanson et al., 1998; see below). Storage proteins are also synthesized and accumulated in specialized vegetative cells in response to wounding and to developmental switches (Maeshima et al., 1985; Sonnewald et al., 1989; Staswick, 1990; Herman, 1994; Jauh et al., 1998). Distinctively, the membrane of the vegetative storage vacuoles contains the aquaporin ∂-TIP (Jauh et al., 1998; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998). In the endosperm of cereal grains, proteins accumulate in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–derived organelles of vacuole-like size (see below). A few recent studies show that distinct vacuoles may simultaneously function in the same cell. Two separate vacuolar compartments, defined by α-TIP and γ-TIP, occur together in the root tip cells of barley and pea seedlings, mature tobacco plants, as well as in the plumule cells of pea seedlings (Paris et al., 1996). Barley lectin in root tip cells is found within α-TIP–positive vacuoles but not in γ-TIP–positive vacuoles, whereas the barley acid cysteine protease, aleurain, is specifically contained within γ-TIP–positive vacuoles but is absent from α-TIP–positive vacuoles. Thus, α-TIP defines a storage vacuole in which proteins are protected against degradative enzymes, whereas γ-TIP defines a separate, acidic, lytic vacuole. As cells develop large vacuoles, these two compartments appear to merge because the marker membrane antigens, α-TIP and γ-TIP, colocalize to the same membrane, at least in certain regions of the vacuolar compartments (Paris et al., 1996). Two distinct vacuole types are similarly found in living protoplasts of barley aleurone (Swanson et al., 1998). In addition to PSVs, aleurone cells contain a second type of lytic organelle, designated as secondary vacuoles by the authors of this study. Although PSVs and secondary vacuoles are lytic organelles with acidic contents, it was suggested that the secondary vacuoles, which have many features typical of plant vacuoles, function as lysosomes and could be involved in the programmed death of aleurone cells (Swanson et al., 1998). Another example of the versatility of vacuoles comes from investigations of the motor cells of the pulvini from Mimosa pudica (Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997). The vacuole that occurs in the immature (nonreactive) motor cell is located near the nucleus, contains large amounts of tannins, and is believed to act as a Ca^2+ store. The “aqueous” vacuole that is additionally found in mature motor cells does not contain tannins, is much larger than the tannin-containing vacuole, and occupies a central position in mature cells. The changes in cell volume that are responsible for pulvini-mediated leaf movement result from massive water fluxes mainly across the membrane of the larger, aqueous vacuole, on which the γ-TIP aquaporin and the vacuolar-type H ^+-translocating ATPase (V-ATPase) are detected almost exclusively (for a review of membrane ATPases, see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Both vacuoles change shape to effect cell shrinkage. The tannin-containing vacuole forms interconnected tubules, whereas the aqueous vacuole develops membrane wrinkles. In any case, the tannin vacuole and the aqueous vacuole do not merge but rather coexist within the mature motor cell. Additionally, because vacuoles are highly dynamic organelles, often capable of transforming in terms of both form and function, several “generations” of vacuole may be found within a given cell. In the cells of developing pea cotyledons, for instance, two categories of vacuole are reported: a declining, vegetative γ-TIP–associated vacuole; and a newly formed, α-TIP–associated storage vacuole (Hoh et al., 1995). Moreover, in suspension-cultured cells subjected to sucrose starvation, protein degradation is supported by numerous active autophagic vacuoles that are present together with the large, more mature central vacuole (Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). After completion of autophagic digestion, the small vacuoles are subsequently incorporated into the central vacuole. However, when intracellular digestion is inhibited, autophagic vacuoles containing undigested substrates remain in the cytoplasm as residual bodies, apart from the large central vacuole. The diversity of function and form outlined in the above examples illustrates that the cytological definition of vacuoles is likely to cover several biochemically and physiologically distinct entities. Vacuoles, as dynamic organelles, can thus be viewed in the right perspective only if their dynamic nature itself is understood. In several instances, entities that may be variously defined according to different morphological, biochemical, and physical criteria may not necessarily correspond to distinct physiological units. Previous SectionNext Section BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES Until recently, our knowledge of the biosynthesis and maintenance of vacuoles was based largely on morphological observations. Technological breakthroughs over the past few years have advanced our understanding of vacuolar biogenesis to a more detailed molecular level. Resident vacuolar proteins as well as proteins destined for degradation are delivered to the vacuole via the secretory pathway, which includes the biosynthetic, autophagic, and endocytotic transport routes that are presented in Figure 1. The basic mechanisms that organize these routes in eukaryotes are highly conserved across phyla (see Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Early Secretory Pathway In plant cells, as in animal cells and yeast, anterograde transport of newly synthesized soluble as well as membrane proteins through the vacuolar pathway begins at the ER. Most soluble proteins destined for the vacuole are synthesized as precursors with a transient N-terminal signal peptide by membrane-bound polysomes. The nascent precursor form is efficiently targeted to the ER lumen. After their cotranslational translocation across the ER membrane, the secretory proteins are folded and subjected to early post-translational modifications. ER-resident proteins, such as the lumenal binding protein BiP (Denecke et al., 1991), assist newly synthesized polypeptides in acquiring their correct conformation. Proteins that fail to attain the correct three-dimensional structure are eventually degraded by a mechanism that does not involve the Golgi complex–mediated route to the vacuole. Alternatively, some proteins that are not properly folded in the ER are delivered back to the cytosol by reverse translocation across the ER (Pedrazzini et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998; see Vitale and Denecke, 1999, in this issue). Figure 1. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 1. A Working Model for Transport Pathways in the Vacuolar Apparatus. Seven basic pathways are used for the biogenesis, maintenance, and supplying of vacuoles. Pathway 1: entry and transport in the early secretory pathway (from ER to late Golgi compartments). Pathway 2: sorting of vacuolar proteins in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) to a pre/provacuolar compartment (PVC) via an early biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 3: transport from PVC to vacuole via the late biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 4: transport from early secretory steps (ER to Golgi complex; pathway 1) to the vacuole via an alternative route with possible material accretion from Golgi (indicated by the asterisk). Pathway 5: endocytotic pathway from the cell surface to the vacuole via endosomes. Pathway 6: cytoplasm to vacuole through autophagy by degradative or biosynthetic pathways. Pathway 7: transport of ions and solutes across the tonoplast. AV, autophagic vacuole; E, early endosome; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; PVC, pre/provacuolar compartment; TGN, trans-Golgi network. Secretory proteins that are inserted into or translocated across the ER membrane can contain sorting signals required for their targeting to and/or retention in almost any of the compartments along the secretory pathway. For some proteins, the target organelle is the ER itself, and these proteins are not transported further. All other proteins competent for transport along the secretory pathway are carried to the Golgi complex via a still elusive vesiculo-tubular intermediate compartment. Indeed, tubular continuities have been shown to form direct linkages between the ER and the Golgi complex. Consequently, tubular transport might occur in a direction tangential, rather than perpendicular, to the Golgi stacks, in a manner that differs, therefore, from that usually assumed to operate in animal and fungal cells. The Golgi complex has a pivotal role in the secretory pathway. In plant cells, it consists of a set of dispersed units (dictyosomes) surrounded by a proteinaceous matrix. Like its counterpart in animal cells, each morphological Golgi unit in the plant cell includes a Golgi stack and a trans-Golgi network (TGN; Marty, 1978; Staehelin and Moore, 1995; Dupree and Sherrier, 1998). The Golgi stacks consist of three discrete groups of cisternae (cis, medial, and trans) that can be defined by their distinct morphologies and by their cytochemical and biochemical properties. Covalent and conformational modifications of newly synthesized secretory proteins, which begin in the ER, are continued in the Golgi complex and post-Golgi compartments. As they are being processed, vacuolar proteins transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway together with proteins that are destined to be exported into the extracellular medium or delivered to the plasma membrane. Late Secretory Pathway—From TGN to Prevacuoles The TGN is a major branch point in the secretory pathway and is the site of multiple sorting events that separate proteins destined for exocytotic egress from those progressing to the vacuole. The TGN varies in size according to the specific function of the cell. Under the hypothesis that biogenetic and trafficking processes are modulated in response to specific cell requirements, comprehensive morphological studies have been performed in actively vacuolating cells. The processes involved in the formation of vacuoles and their partitioning during mitosis, for example, are conveniently studied in the differentiating cells of the root meristem. Figure 2 shows the partitioning of mitotic provacuole clusters into daughter cells. In cells in which new vacuoles are being formed, the TGN consists of a twisted, polygonal meshwork of smooth-surfaced anastomosing tubules extending from a central disk-shaped cisternal cavity facing the Golgi stack. Via lateral linkages, a single TGN might be shared by several Golgi units. Clathrin-coated blebs and local swellings containing internal vesicles can be observed along the tubules, and numerous vesicles budding from the TGN mediate the transport of biomolecules to the vacuole. Figure 2. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 2. Partitioning of the Vacuolar Apparatus during Mitosis. Distribution of mitotic provacuole clusters in vacuolating cells from the root meristem of horseradish. The vacuolar apparatus was selectively labeled by the zinc iodide–osmium reaction (see Marty, 1978). The specimen (3 μm thick) was examined without counterstain at 2.5 MV with a very high voltage (3 MV) electron microscope. Images were processed using Photoshop software (Adobe, San Jose, CA). Provacuoles are shown in yellow, Golgi complexes in red, and mitochondria and plastids in blue. The Prevacuolar Compartment The TGN-derived vesicles on the vacuolar pathway form an intermediate compartment between the late trans-Golgi sorting site and the vacuole. These vesicles have been collectively referred to as provacuoles because they act ontogenetically as the immediate progenitors of the vacuole. They also mediate transport between the ER/Golgi complex and the vacuole and thus take functional precedence in the path to the vacuole. On account of this succession, they can be said to act as a physiological prevacuolar compartment (PVC) for cargo proteins en route to the vacuole (Marty, 1978, 1997). Nascent provacuoles, budding from nodes of the TGN meshwork, have an average diameter (∼100 nm) distinctly larger than the diameter of the TGN tubules (∼15 nm). Rather quickly, the vesicular provacuoles extend into tubular provacuoles having roughly the same bore (100 nm) as the vesicles from which they derive. Their lumen is filled with vesicles that are presumably derived from microinvagination of their membranes (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The extensive tubular provacuoles in vacuolating cells may be an enhanced version of the ubiquitous PVC described in mammalian cells and yeast (Piper et al., 1995). The membrane proliferation results from a dynamic effect that would occur either if membrane flow out of the provacuole were slowed down or if the membrane input from the TGN and/or the endocytotic tributary were increased. Furthermore, the provacuolar compartment might be a critical junction in post-Golgi trafficking at which the endocytotic and vacuolar biogenetic pathways converge. Autophagy and Vacuolation As revealed by three-dimensional high-voltage electron microscopy, the formation of autophagic vacuoles begins with a striking sequence of provacuole tubulation that proceeds to enclose discrete volumes of cytoplasmic material (Marty, 1978, 1997). Figure 3 represents this sequence of events, whereby tubular provacuoles produce digitate extensions that form cagelike traps so as to sequester portions of cytoplasm. Adjacent bars of the cage then fuse in a zipperlike fashion and, through transient palmar connections, build a continuous and tight cavity around the segregated portion of cytoplasm. Sections through these ball-shaped structures are recognized as early autophagosomes (i.e., a cytoplasmic area encircled by a narrow ringlike cavity bounded by inner and outer membranes). Cytochemical studies show that the TGN, provacuoles, and autophagosomes are acidic and contain lysosomal acid hydrolases. The cytoplasm in the autophagosome is degraded after it has been totally closed off. It is speculated that the digestive enzymes are released from the surrounding cavity as the inner boundary membrane deteriorates. Upon completion of the digestive process, a typical vacuole is formed. The outer membrane, which remains impermeable to hydrolytic enzymes, confines digestive activities within the forming vacuole and becomes the tonoplast. Newly formed vacuoles can then fuse together to produce a few large vacuoles. Ultimately, facilitated transport of water through the tonoplast, mediated by γ-TIP aquaporins, results in rapid vacuole enlargement (Ludevid et al., 1992; Maurel, 1997). Figure 3. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 3. Autophagic Activity of Provacuoles. Sequential stages of cytoplasmic confinement by provacuoles involved in cellular autophagy. Tubular provacuoles (1 and 2) form cagelike traps (2 to 4) enclosing portions of cytoplasm of a cell from the root meristem of Euphorbia characias. Adjacent bars of the cages then fuse to build a continuous and tight envelope (central structure [4]) around segregated portions of cytoplasm. Samples were processed as described in the legend to Figure 2. Starvation-Induced Autophagy In response to starvation, autophagy is reinitiated in cells that are already vacuolated. The autophagic pathway is activated, for example, after sucrose deprivation of suspension-cultured cells (Chen et al., 1994; Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). Portions of peripheral cytoplasm are first sequestered in double membrane–bounded envelopes (through the process described above) and then eventually digested. The small vacuoles, thus newly formed in the cytoplasm, are finally incorporated into the central vacuole. It has been shown that the induction of cellular autophagy is controlled by the supply of mitochondria with respiratory substrate and not by the decrease in the concentration of sucrose and hexose phosphates (Aubert et al., 1996). Formation of autophagic vacuoles has been correlated with an increase in the rates of intracellular proteolysis (Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996) and a massive breakdown of membrane polar lipids (Aubert et al., 1996). As a degradative pathway, autophagy plays a central role in protein and organelle turnover. It has been implicated in vacuolation and cell differentiation, and it is critical for survival during stress conditions such as nutrient deprivation. It can also be exploited for biosynthetic purposes as a cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway, as occurs in yeast, and with regard to supplying PSVs (see below). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS Specialized cells in seeds and vegetative organs accumulate proteins that function primarily as reserves of amino acids. The most common storage proteins are the globulins, which are found in embryos, and the prolamins, which are unique to cereal endosperms. Most storage proteins, including globulins and some prolamins, have been shown to be transported to vacuoles via the Golgi complex (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Chrispeels, 1991; see also Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). However, studies on the assembly and transport of seed storage proteins in legumes and cereals have shown that reserve proteins can be sorted at diverse exit sites along the vacuolar pathway. As a result, proteins are stored in a variety of compartments specific to the plant species, tissue, stage of cell differentiation, and protein category. Golgi-Dependent and Golgi-Independent Routes to PSVs Pulse-labeling experiments, morphological and immunocytochemical studies, and biochemical analyses have provided compelling evidence for a Golgi-mediated route to the PSV in legumes and other dicots. Storage proteins are synthesized as precursors that are cotranslationally transferred into the lumen of the rough ER and transported via the Golgi apparatus into specialized vacuoles where proteolytic processing is usually needed to promote their stable storage. Whereas protein storage deposits are seldom observed in the lumen of the rough ER at the early stage of the transport pathway, condensed storage proteins are commonly detected in smooth-surfaced vesicles, ∼100 nm in diameter, in association with the cis-, medial-, or trans-cisternae of the Golgi complex (Hohl et al., 1996). Furthermore, three different types of vesicle are commonly found in close proximity to the Golgi area: vesicles that carry storage proteins, exocytotic vesicles containing cell wall polymers, and clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs). The existence of two different exit sites for vacuolar proteins at the Golgi complex and the utilization of “alternative” secretory vesicles suggest further variations to vacuole function (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). According to current views, vesicles containing storage proteins originate at the cis-Golgi cisternae, and proteins undergo maturation processes as they progress through the Golgi stacks up to the TGN, where they are sorted to the storage vacuoles (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). At the exit site, CCVs were found to bud off from the vesicles containing storage proteins. Subsequently, only the clathrin-free vesicles, but not the CCVs, are involved in the transport of soluble storage proteins to the vacuole. A different pathway recently has been suggested in cells from maturing seeds of pumpkin and castor bean (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998). In these cells, proglobulin and pro2S albumin were shown to be transferred from the rough ER to the PSV via large vesicles (200 to 400 nm in diameter). These large precursor-accumulating vesicles are distinct from the Golgi-derived vesicles but similar to the late protein bodies described in pea cotyledons (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). It was suggested that the core of storage proproteins contained in these large vesicles might derive directly from protein aggregates that are formed in the ER (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998); they accumulate proprotein precursors and ER-resident proteins such as BiP but not mature products. In maturing pumpkin cotyledons, where the vast majority of storage proteins are not glycosylated, the precursor-accumulating vesicles bypass the Golgi apparatus such that their transport is not inhibited by the carboxylic ionophore monensin. In contrast to pumpkin seeds, castor bean seeds contain storage glycoproteins with complex glycans. Their processing occurs in the Golgi complex. The Golgi-processed glycoproteins are subsequently incorporated into the ER-derived precursor-accumulating vesicles at the periphery of the core aggregates. Storage glycoproteins, together with other storage proteins, are ultimately transported by the mature vesicle as far as the PSV. However, the final steps of the transport pathway to the storage vacuole are still unknown. It was suggested that the incorporation of the precursors into PSVs could occur by membrane fusion or by autophagic engulfment of the vesicle into the vacuole. Autophagy and PSVs Developing legume cotyledons comprise a model system to study both the ontogenesis of the PSV and the intracellular transport of vacuolar reserve proteins (Chrispeels, 1991). In the parenchyma cells of maturing legume cotyledons, the very few large vegetative vacuoles become replaced by numerous PSVs. Ultrastructural studies indicate that the preexisting vegetative vacuoles of immature parenchyma cells are trapped by a newly developing smooth tubulo-cisternal membrane system that already contains storage proteins (Craig, 1986; Hoh et al., 1995). However, the origin of this new membrane system is not clearly understood. The trapped vegetative vacuoles disappear as the novel storage vacuoles gradually fill up with storage proteins (Hoh et al., 1995). During the process, the storage proteins aggregate as individual clumps against the tonoplast and cause it to protrude into the cytoplasm. By a budding process, the protruding protein masses, still surrounded by the tonoplast, become independent small storage vacuoles (membrane-bounded “protein bodies” [PBs]) dispersed in the cytoplasm. At later stages of cotyledon maturation, the budding process stops, and the main original storage vacuole, which continues to accumulate reserve proteins, transforms into a distinct category of large storage vacuole. A third type of storage protein reservoir is formed in the cells at the middle to late stages of seed maturation, before storage protein synthesis ceases. Storage proteins accumulate in smooth-surfaced cisternae and channels with terminal dilations. These swellings may detach and become independent spherical bodies without cisternal connections. Finally, in germinating legume seedlings, PSVs are replaced by a vegetative vacuole through yet another type of developmentally regulated sequestration and disposal of organelles. Local invaginations of the tonoplast and engulfment of cytoplasmic fragments, subsequently degraded in the PSV, have been described (Herman et al., 1981; Melroy and Herman, 1991). Storage Proteins in Cereals Cereal grains differ from legume seeds by accumulating the alcohol-soluble prolamins as storage proteins in endosperm cells (Shewry et al., 1995). Cereal prolamins, like legume globulins, are cotranslationally loaded into the lumen of the ER. In many cereals, including maize, rice, and sorghum, prolamins form dense, insoluble accretions, which are retained within the lumen of the ER and, as in the case of the legumes, termed PBs (Lending et al., 1988; Geli et al., 1994). In developing endosperm cells, PBs become enlarged as newly synthesized prolamins are acquired and assembled with the aid of protein disulfide isomerase and molecular chaperones such as BiP (Lending and Larkins, 1989; Boston et al., 1991; Li and Larkins, 1996). Prolamins of other cereals, including wheat, barley, and oat, on the other hand, accumulate in vacuoles together with globulins (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Levanony et al., 1992). Globulins are transported along the anterograde pathway via the Golgi complex to the vacuolar compartment, whereas prolamin PBs are incorporated into the vacuole by an autophagic process (Levanony et al., 1992). Several cytological observations have suggested that rather similar autophagic mechanisms might operate when transgenes encoding storage proteins from cereals are expressed in vegetative tobacco cells (Coleman et al., 1996; Bagga et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998). The transgene products form accretions in the ER, as in many storage cells in cereals, but the ER membrane–bounded PBs are subsequently captured by an autophagic process and delivered to the vegetative vacuole, where they are eventually proteolytically degraded. Interestingly, somewhat similar steps could be detected during the transport of storage proteins to storage vacuoles by large precursor-accumulating vesicles in normally developing cells (Levanony et al., 1992; Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998; see above). These results suggest that the cellular machinery of autophagy can be used for delivering cytosolic proteins and early membrane-bounded PBs to the vacuole, thus defining a biosynthetic cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway as occurs in yeast. The ontogeny of the compartments specialized in protein storage is thus diverse, and not all stores are (ontogenetically) homologous, although all belong to the vacuolar apparatus of plant cells. For a more detailed discussion of PSVs, see Herman and Larkins (1999), in this issue. Previous SectionNext Section ENDOCYTOSIS Endocytosis is defined as the uptake of extracellular and plasma membrane materials from the cell surface into the cell. Endocytosis has been characterized morphologically in plant cells in which both fluid-phase uptake and receptor-mediated internalizations have been visualized (reviewed in Low and Chandra, 1994; Marty, 1997; see also Battey et al., 1999, in this issue). Two distinct routes of internalization by clathrin-mediated endocytosis have been suggested to operate in plant cells: (1) from the plasma membrane to an endosomal compartment, including the partially coated reticulum, multivesicular bodies, TGN, and the PVC; and (2) from the plasma membrane to the PVC and the vacuoles (Low and Chandra, 1994). Novel intermediary structures arising from plasma membrane internalization have also been described as part of a compensatory recycling mechanism in actively secreting cells (Staehelin and Chapman, 1987). Rapid retrieval of plasma membrane to the cell interior, together with a fluid phase internalization of extracellular material, occurs in water-stressed cells (Steponkus, 1991; Oparka et al., 1993; Barrieu et al., 1999). Morphological studies of vacuolating cells by electron microscopy suggest that the endocytotic and biosynthetic vacuolar pathways converge at the provacuolar compartment before nascent autophagic vacuoles are formed (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The convergence point(s) between these pathways in already vacuolated cells is unknown, but it seems reasonable to hypothesize that the juncture could be at the prevacuolar compartment. Endocytotic vesicles and endosomes belong to the vacuolar apparatus, but their direct contribution to the formation of the vacuole remains uncertain. Whereas the vesicle-mediated internalization of plasma membrane has been documented in plant cells, the routes involved need to be precisely mapped by reliable tracers. A potential candidate is Tlg1p, a protein functionally homologous to the t-SNARE (see below) localized on a putative early endosome in yeast. Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS Vacuolar soluble proteins and membrane proteins alike travel through the early stages of the secretory pathway. Most probably, they are sorted away from proteins destined for delivery to the cell surface at the exit of the Golgi complex (see, e.g., Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Soluble proteins therefore require a sorting signal to tag them for vacuolar delivery after their egress from the Golgi complex; indeed, in the absence of such informational tags, they are secreted to the extracellular space. Three types of vacuolar targeting signals have been described (Chrispeels and Raikhel, 1992). Some vacuolar proteins (e.g., sporamin and aleurain) contain an N-terminal propeptide (NTPP) as a targeting determinant; others (e.g., barley lectin, phaseolin, tobacco chitinase, and Brazil nut 2S albumin) contain a C-terminal propeptide (CTPP), whereas some vacuolar proteins (e.g., phytohemagglutinin and legumin) contain a targeting signal in an exposed region of the mature protein. NTPP Signals The targeting determinants characterized in NTPPs from the barley cysteine protease aleurain (Holwerda et al., 1992) and from sweet potato sporamin (Nakamura et al., 1993) contain a conserved Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg amino acid sequence. This motif in the NTPP is necessary and sufficient for the sorting of the sporamin precursor to the vacuole (Nakamura et al., 1993; Matsuoka et al., 1995). Sporamin is delivered to the sink vacuole in cells from the tuberous roots of the sweet potato (Maeshima et al., 1985), whereas aleurain is sorted to a lytic compartment distinct from the PSV (Paris et al., 1996). CTPP Signals By contrast to NTPP signals, a vacuolar sorting consensus sequence has not been identified in CTPP targeting domains. Nevertheless, the CTPP was shown to be necessary and sufficient for the targeting of barley lectin to the vacuole (Bednarek and Raikhel, 1991; Matsuoka et al., 1995). The N-linked glycan of the CTPP in barley lectin is not necessary for sorting, although it modulates the rate of processing of the propeptide. Hydrophobic residues in the CTPP are important for the targeting of barley lectin (Dombrowski et al., 1993). Similar mutagenesis analyses have been performed to characterize the targeting signal of tobacco chitinase (Neuhaus et al., 1994). CTPPs from vacuolar proteins differ in length, and it was recently shown that a short CTPP from phaseolin contains information necessary for interactions with the vacuolar sorting machinery in a saturable manner (Frigerio et al., 1998). The barley lectin, phaseolin, and Brazil nut 2S albumin accumulate in PSVs, whereas tobacco chitinase is delivered to vacuoles of vegetative cells. Results indicate that more than one sorting mechanism might exploit the CTPP targeting signal and that transport of CTPP-containing proteins from the Golgi complex to the vacuoles involves more than one pathway (Matsuoka et al., 1995; Frigerio et al., 1998). Both CTPP- and NTPP-mediated vacuolar delivery also involve alternative structures and mechanisms, although NTPP and CTPP were found to be functionally interchangeable in directing proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1995). Internal Signals Other plant vacuolar proteins are synthesized without a cleavable vacuolar-targeting signal. Studies on phytohemagglutinin (PHA) from Phaseolus vulgaris (Tague et al., 1990) and legumin from Vicia faba (Saalbach et al., 1991) have demonstrated targeting information in exposed regions of the mature proteins, which are deposited in the PSVs of the reserve parenchyma cells of cotyledons. Strikingly, soluble proteins, such as PHA, and proteinase inhibitors, which are usually vacuolar, occasionally have been detected in the extracellular matrix, suggesting that the vacuolar targeting signals might not be recognized in all cells (Kjemtrup et al., 1995). Moreover, recent work on suspension-cultured cells showed that some soluble, fully processed, vacuolar hydrolases can be excreted into the medium under hormonal control. The exocytotic pathway for these “vacuolar” proteins would lead from either the vacuole or the PVC situated downstream of the last processing step (Kunze et al., 1998). Although short amino acid sequences of plant vacuolar proteins are sufficient to sort nonvacuolar proteins to the vacuole in yeast (Tague et al., 1990), plant proteins are sorted to the yeast vacuole by signals different from those recognized by plants, suggesting that the transport machinery is at least partially different between yeast and plants (Gal and Raikhel, 1994). Vacuolar membrane and intravacuolar soluble proteins are targeted to vacuoles by different mechanisms. Pulse–chase experiments and pharmacological studies on protoplasts from transgenic tobacco plants suggest that soluble proteins such as PHA and integral membrane proteins such as α-TIP reach the same destination by traveling through different paths (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). Signals in TIPs? Transport pathways for integral membrane proteins of the tonoplast have been investigated (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992; Jiang and Rogers, 1998). The vacuolar membrane α-TIP and γ-TIP are polytopic integral membrane proteins, with six membrane-spanning domains and both N and C termini located in the cytoplasm. In an early analysis of the targeting information contained in α-TIP, it was found that a polypeptide segment comprising the sixth membrane-spanning domain and the adjacent C-terminal, cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP is sufficient to target a nonvacuolar reporter protein to the tonoplast. In addition, the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail was not found necessary for the targeting of α-TIP in the same stably transformed tobacco cells (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992). More recently, the trafficking of a chimeric integral membrane reporter protein was analyzed in tobacco protoplasts (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). It was found that the transmembrane domain of the plant vacuolar sorting receptor BP-80 (see below) directs the reporter protein via the Golgi complex to the prevacuolar compartment, and attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of γ-TIP did not alter this traffic. By contrast, attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP prevented traffic of the reporter protein through the Golgi complex but caused it to be localized to vacuoles. It was thus concluded that there are two separate pathways to vacuoles for membrane proteins: a direct pathway followed by α-TIP from the ER to PSVs, and a separate pathway followed by γ-TIP via the Golgi complex and PVC to the vegetative lytic vacuole (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS Soluble vacuolar proteins are diverted away from the exocytotic pathway through a receptor-mediated process that leads to their delivery to the vacuole. Two independent approaches resulted in the identification of plant vacuolar sorting receptors (Kirsch et al., 1994; Ahmed et al., 1997). It was initially hypothesized that the Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg motif conserved in the NTPP vacuole-targeting determinant of aleurain and sporamin, two unrelated proteins, was likely to be recognized by a sorting receptor (Kirsch et al., 1994). Indeed, a protein of 80 kD, called BP-80, has been affinity purified from a lysate of CCVs from pea. It possesses all the features expected of a vacuolar sorting receptor. It is a type I integral membrane protein that is localized in the Golgi complex and in small vacuolar structures. These vacuolar structures are distinct from both α-TIP and γ-TIP vacuoles but are possibly analogous to prevacuoles. Several homologs have been cloned, and the sequences appear to be highly conserved in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants (Paris et al., 1997). An alternative approach led to the identification of an Arabidopsis receptor-like protein called AtELP (for Arabidopsis thaliana epidermal growth factor–like protein). This second approach was based on the use of known functional motifs present in many of the receptor proteins involved in clathrin-dependent intracellular protein sorting in mammalian and yeast cells (Ahmed et al., 1997). AtELP shares many common features with mammalian and yeast transmembrane cargo receptors. It is capable of in vitro interaction with the proteins of the TGN-specific AP-1 adaptor complex from mammals. It is located at the TGN, in CCVs, and on the PVC in the root cells of Arabidopsis. AtELP is highly homologous to BP-80, suggesting that it also may play a role in targeting proteins to the vacuole (Sanderfoot et al., 1998; see also Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Mechanisms recognizing the C-terminal or internal vacuolar sorting signals of soluble proteins have not been elucidated, and the identification of receptor-mediated pathways for membrane proteins is still in debate (see, e.g., Vitale and Raikhel, 1999). In addition to sorting receptors, other components of the vacuolar targeting machinery are being identified in plants. An interesting example is a V-ATPase activity associated with the Golgi complex, distinct from that of the tonoplast V-ATPase, and which is necessary for the efficient targeting of soluble proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1997; see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Previous SectionNext Section TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS Transport of soluble and membrane proteins in the secretory pathway is known to be mediated by the budding and fusion of transport vesicles (Rothman, 1994) and, in certain cell types or physiological situations, by cisternal progression and direct tubular linkages between different compartments (Pelham, 1998). As an early step in vesicular transport, budding involves coat proteins that assemble from the cytosol. CCVs, COPI and COPII-like vesicles, and “dense” vesicles have been described in plant cells (Robinson et al., 1998; see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Available data indicate that a considerable homology between coat proteins in plant, yeast, and animal cells exists, although we still know little of the molecular organization of transport vesicles in plants. Docking and fusion steps are thought to be mainly regulated by integral membrane receptors, termed SNAREs (for soluble N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) (see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). According to the prevalent model, SNAREs on vesicles (v-SNAREs) interact with cognate SNAREs on the target membranes (t-SNAREs). The soluble proteins NSF (for N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor) and α-SNAP (for soluble NSF attachment protein) then bind the v-SNARE/t-SNARE complex, and a rearrangement triggered by ATP hydrolysis finally promotes membrane fusion. The diversity and specificity of vesicle transport routes correlate with the complexity of traffic effectors, which include Rab proteins, Rab-binding molecules, Ca^2+, and components of the cytoskeleton. Many lines of investigation suggest that the mechanisms of vesicular budding, docking, and fusion are conserved across species and subcellular compartments. A growing number of proteins functionally homologous (orthologs) to the SNAREs characterized in yeast and mammalian cells is being identified in plant cells (Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Initial results show that the sorting mechanism for soluble proteins to the plant vacuole agrees well with the SNARE model. The putative plant vacuolar receptor AtELP (see above) is able to recruit the adaptor complex 1 (AP-1) present at the TGN. As a consequence, the AtELP receptor appears to be included in TGN-derived CCVs. These vesicles carry the vacuolar cargo together with its receptor to the prevacuolar compartment, where the receptor (AtELP) and the prevacuole-specific t-SNARE (AtPEP12p; da Silva Conceição et al., 1997) are colocalized (Sanderfoot et al., 1998). The vacuolar t-SNARE AtVam3p is used downstream in the late vacuolar pathway. However, its function in homotypic (vacuole–vacuole) or heterotypic (prevacuole–vacuole) fusions or in autophagy is still being debated. Compelling microscopic evidence is also suggestive of transient tubular continuities between compartments of the vacuolar pathway in particular cell types or physiological conditions. Indeed, tubular continuities between the ER and the Golgi complex, between cisternae from the same Golgi stack, between TGN units from adjacent Golgi stacks, between the TGN and the pre/provacuolar compartment, and between provacuoles and autophagic vacuoles have been described (see Marty, 1997). Such interconnections are consistent with an intracellular transport by cisternal progression and maturation. Vesicular and nonvesicular transport mechanisms, it should be stressed, are not mutually exclusive. Previous SectionNext Section TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS The vacuole plays an important role in the homeostasis of the plant cell. It is involved in the control of cell volume and cell turgor; the regulation of cytoplasmic ions and pH; the storage of amino acids, sugars, and CO[2]; and the sequestration of toxic ions and xenobiotics. These activities are driven by specific proteins present in the tonoplast and indicated in Figure 4. These functions have been abundantly documented and reviewed (Sze et al., 1992; Rea and Poole, 1993; Barkla and Pantoja, 1996; Leigh, 1997; Maurel, 1997; Wink, 1997; Rea et al., 1998; see also Chrispeels et al., 1999; Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). According to the chemiosmotic model for energy-dependent solute transport, the proton-motive force generated by either the V-ATPase or the H^+-translocating inorganic pyrophosphatase (V-PPase) can be used to drive secondary solute transports. Movement of ions and water down their thermodynamic potentials is achieved by specific ion channels and water channels (aquaporins). The resulting ion, water, and metabolite fluxes across the vacuolar membrane are crucial to the diverse functions of the vacuole in plant cells, such as cell enlargement and plant growth, signal transduction, protoplasmic homeostasis, and regulation of metabolic pathways (Sze et al., 1992). Figure 4. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 4. Model of ABC Transporters, H^+ Primary Pumps, H^+-Coupled Transporters, and Channels in a Simplified Tonoplast. Glutathione S-conjugate (GS-X) and metabolite (M) transport is achieved by an ABC transporter(s). An electrogenic H^+-ATPase (V-type) and an H^+-PPase acidify the vacuole. The proton motive force provides energy for uptake and release of solutes (i.e., cations, anions, and organic solutes, denoted A, B, or C indiscriminately here) across the tonoplast through transporters and channels. Water channels (aquaporins) facilitate the passive exchange of water. Recent studies have demonstrated the existence of a group of organic solute transporters, belonging to the ABC superfamily, that are directly energized by MgATP (Rea et al., 1998). These pumps are competent in the transport of a broad range of substances, including sugars, peptides, alkaloids, and inorganic anions. Belonging to the ABC family, the multidrug resistance–associated proteins (MRPs) identified in plants are considered to participate in the transport of exogenous and endogenous amphipathic anions and glutathionated compounds from the cytoplasm to the vacuole. They function in herbicide detoxification, cell pigmentation, storage of antimicrobial compounds, and alleviation of oxidative damage. A role for plant MRPs is also suspected in channel regulation and transport of heavy metal chelates. Previous SectionNext Section CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES Evolutionary perspectives place vacuoles at a central position in the physiological strategies of plants in their environment. In the vast majority of cells from the plant body, vacuoles provide the true milieu intérieur. They are responsible for the high cell surface–to–protoplasmic volume ratio required for extensive exchanges of material and information between cells and their environment. In cooperation with the cell wall, they create turgor, which is basic to cell hydraulic stiffness and plant growth. In specialized cells, pigment- and allelochemical-accumulating vacuoles serve as mediators of plant–plant, plant–microorganism, and plant–herbivore interactions. In seeds, vacuoles store proteins to be used for anabolism during seedling growth. The diversity of vacuolar functions parallels a diversity in morphology, biochemistry, and biogenesis. A number of different intracellular trafficking pathways have already been mapped and provide a structural framework for present concepts in vacuole physiology. The routes are many and varied, but there are significant overlaps, which suggests that although the vacuolar processes serve specific goals, they are all intimately related. Moreover, any one of the compartments from a given trafficking pathway may function so as to be, kinetically and physiologically speaking, “vacuole-like.” Much additional work is needed to characterize vacuoles and their progenitors more precisely by molecular criteria and to adjust recent molecular findings to a structural framework. Plant genetic screens will be useful to identify and characterize genes encoding plant-specific vacuolar functions. Autophagy, both in the degradative and biosynthetic pathways, arises as a key process in the biogenesis and remodeling of the vacuolar apparatus. It drives the formation of vegetative vacuoles when meristematic cells differentiate, it operates when the vacuolar apparatus switches alternately from vegetative to storage functions, and it is induced by starvation. Many questions are elicited regarding protein trafficking by autophagy. For instance, do autophagic membranes all have the same origin? What triggers the formation, movement, and fusion of the autophagic components? Much has also to be learned about the role of the cytoskeleton in organizing intercompartmental movement of vesicles and shaping vacuoles and their precursors. What are the regulatory mechanisms involved when cells inherit vacuoles from mother cells at mitosis? Previous SectionNext Section Acknowledgments The author is grateful to past and present members of his laboratory and to colleagues elsewhere for their contributions to the work discussed in this review. The author’s laboratory is supported by grants from the Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de la Recherche et de la Technologie (UPR ES 469), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Département des Sciences de la Vie), the Conseil Régional de Bourgogne, and the Délégation Régionale à la Recherche et à la Technologie. Previous Section REFERENCES 1. ↵ 1. Ahmed S.U., 2. Bar-Peled M., 3. Raikhel N.V. (1997). Cloning and subcellular location of an Arabidopsis receptor-like protein that shares common features with protein-sorting receptors of eukaryotic cells. Plant Physiol. 114, 325–336. Abstract 2. ↵ 1. Aubert S., 2. Gout E., 3. Bligny R., 4. Marty-Mazars D., 5. Barrieu F., 6. Alabouvette J., 7. Marty F., 8. Douce R. (1996). 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Compartmentation of secondary metabolites and xenobiotics in plant vacuoles. In Advances in Botanical Research, Vol. 25: The Plant Vacuole, Leigh R.A., Sanders D., eds (London: Academic Press), pp. 141–169. Search Google Scholar Teaching Tools Navigate This Article 1. Top 2. INTRODUCTION 3. THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES 4. BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES 5. VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS 6. ENDOCYTOSIS 7. VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS 8. VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS 9. TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS 10. TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS 11. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 12. Acknowledgments 13. REFERENCES 1. doi: 10.1105/tpc.11.4.587 The Plant Cell April 1999 vol. 11 no. 4 587-599 1. » Full Text 2. Full Text (PDF) 3. PPT Slides of All Figures 1. + CELLULAR COMPARTMENTS 1. Email this article to a colleague 2. Alert me when this article is cited 3. Alert me if a correction is posted 4. Similar articles in this journal 5. Similar articles in Web of Science 6. Similar articles in PubMed 7. 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The big thing that connects plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process that allows plants to take energy from the Sun and create sugars. Not all plants go through the process of photosynthesis. As with all of biology, there are exceptions and you may learn about plant species that are parasites. Plants also have cell walls. In the cells tutorials we explained that all cells have a membrane. Only plants have an additional cell wall made from cellulose. Let's look at photosynthesis. Plants are able to turn sunlight into energy but not directly. Plants are actually able to store energy in some chemical bonds that can be used later. Before we get into details, we'll explain that there are two processes on Earth: Photosynthesis and Respiration. Photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases that energy. It all starts with the Sun. Check out the tutorial on photosynthesis. Images of Plants Learning from Plants Not only do you see plants everywhere in the real world, but they are also all over the scientific world. Scientists use them for studies in genetics. A guy named Gregor Mendel used pea pods and their flowers to come up with some of the first ideas on how traits are passed from one generation of organism to another (genetics). We also use plants for food. Scientists are constantly developing new plants that are more resistant to disease and insects. Scientists also help create plants that grow faster and make more food. Plants Slideshow Take Quiz on Plants Next Stop On Biology4Kids Tour Return to Top of Page RELATED LINKS - Biology4Kids: Scientific Method - Chem4Kids: Metabolism - Chem4Kids: Carbohydrates - Geography4Kids: Ecosystems - Geography4Kids: Food Chains - Geography4Kids: Carbon Cycle - Geography4Kids: Oxygen Cycle - Geography4Kids: Nitrogen Cycle > Overview - Photosynthesis - Basic Structure - Xylem-Phloem - Reproduction - Special Structures - Mosses & Liverworts - Ferns & Horsetails - Gymnosperms - Angiosperms - Man and Plants MORE BIOLOGY TOPICS Google Custom Search ___________ Search * The custom search only looks at Rader's sites. __________________________________________________________________ Rader Network Side Navigation __________________________________________________________________ Biology4Kids Sections Scientific Studies | Cell Structure | Cell Function | Microorganisms Plants | Invertebrates | Vertebrates | Animal Systems Site Tour | Site Map | Home Page | Real World Examples | Activities & Quizzes Rader's Network of Science and Math Sites Cosmos4Kids | Biology4Kids | Chem4Kids | Geography4Kids | Physics4Kids | NumberNut Go to Help Page Go for site help or list of biology topics at the site map! 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Login Remember me on this computer [ ] ____________________ Search (*) Full Text ( ) Authors Advanced Search * Home * Online Now * Current Issue Archive For Authors Journal Information Change Journal * Aims and Scope * Permissions * Subscriptions * Advertising Information * Instructions for Authors * Presubmission Enquiries * Submit Manuscript * Editorial Enquiries Journals * AJHG * Biophysical Journal * Cancer Cell * Cell * Cell Host & Microbe * Cell Metabolism * Cell Reports * Cell Stem Cell * Chemistry & Biology * Current Biology * Developmental Cell * Immunity * Molecular Cell * Neuron * Stem Cell Reports * Structure Trends in... * Biochemical Sciences * Biotechnology * Cell Biology * Cognitive Sciences * Ecology & Evolution * Endocrinology & Metabolism * Genetics * Immunology * Microbiology * Molecular Medicine * Neurosciences * Parasitology * Pharmacological Sciences * Plant Science [S1360138512X0013X_cov150h.gif] cover popup January, 2013 Volume 18, Issue 1 X cover popup Volume 18, Issue 1 A key plant response to drought is the accumulation of specific sets of metabolites, which act as osmoprotectants, osmolytes, antioxidants and/or stress signals. An emerging question is: How do plants regulate metabolism to balance the ‘competing interests’ between metabolites during stress? Recent research connects primary sulfur metabolism, e.g. sulfate transport in the vasculature, its assimilation in leaves and the recycling of sulfur containing compounds, with the drought stress response. On pages 18–29 Barry J. Pogson and colleagues highlight key steps in sulfur metabolism that play significant roles in drought stress signaling and responses. The authors propose that a complex balancing act is required to coordinate primary and secondary sulfur metabolism during the drought stress response in plants. Cover design by Susanne C. Brink. NEW! Trends in Plant Science Impact Factor: 11.047* * *Source: 2011 Journal Citation Reports©, published by Thomson Reuters Editorial Team * Editor Susanne C. Brink * Executive Editor, General Biology Geoffrey North * Journal Manager Jan Kastelein * Journal Administrators Ria Otten Patrick Scheffmann Advisory Editorial Board * John F. Allen Eduardo Blumwald Jorge J. Casal Jeff Dangl Caroline Dean Richard A. Dixon Alisdair Fernie Wilhelm Gruissem Martin Heil Dirk Inzé Maarten Koornneef Anthony Larkum Ottoline Leyser Cathie Martin Sheila McCormick Sabeeha Merchant Ron Mittler Rebecca Mosher Jane Parker Michael Purugganan Eric Richards Jen Sheen Kazuo Shinozaki Sjef Smeekens Venkatesan Sundaresan Yong-Guan Zhu Stay Connected Facebook Logo Twitter Logo YouTube Logo RSS Feed free article Featured Article CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, and Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Abstract | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data [plant-science;sz=336x280;ord=71164?] Trends in Plant Science in the News Sound-based communication in plants The Conversation University World News Deccan Herald The West Australian The Sydney Morning Herald Plant power: The ultimate way to ‘go green’? ClimateWire U.S.News PysOrg Cell Press Discussions [Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado-108x160.png] [trends-in-ecology-evolution.jpg] Join the discussion on Ecological Neutral Theory; useful model or statement of ignorance? Cell Picture Show Cell Picture Show Plant Biology: They feed, they fight, and they reproduce; in many ways, plants are just like us. Take a peek inside the beautiful—and often complex—lives of plants. Cell Picture Show View more slideshows. Cell Picture Show thanks our sponsor. Recent Trends in Plant Science Special Issue [May2012SpecialIssue.gif] ‘Specificity of plant-enemy interactions’ May 2012 Find here an archive of Trends in Plant Science Special Issues. Presubmission Enquiries | Special Issues | Topic Collections | @TiPSc_news on Twitter | RSS Feeds | Email TOC Alerts __________________________________________________________________ Volume 18, Issue 1 | January 2013 Hilson TECHNIQUES & APPLICATIONS Gateway vectors for transformation of cereals Mansour Karimi, Dirk Inzé, Mieke Van Lijsebettens, Pierre Hilson Friml OPINION Origin and evolution of PIN auxin transporters in the green lineage Tom Viaene, Charles F. Delwiche, Stefan A. Rensing, Jiri Friml Bowman OPINION Detecting trends in tree growth: not so simple David M.J.S. Bowman, Roel J.W. Brienen, Emanuel Gloor, Oliver L. Phillips, Lynda D. Prior Pogson REVIEW (From the Cover) Balancing metabolites in drought: the sulfur assimilation conundrum Kai Xun Chan, Markus Wirtz, Su Yin Phua, Gonzalo M. Estavillo, Barry J. Pogson Sheen1 REVIEW FREE online CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen Finnegan REVIEW Grasses provide new insights into regulation of shoot branching Tesfamichael H. Kebrom, Wolfgang Spielmeyer, E. Jean Finnegan Scheller REVIEW Golgi-localized enzyme complexes for plant cell wall biosynthesis Ai Oikawa, Christian Have Lund, Yumiko Sakuragi, Henrik V. Scheller SpecialIssue TIPS Special issue: Specificity of plant–enemy interactions Volume 17, Issue 5 | May 2012 Individual plant and enemy species (or populations) are reciprocally interacting in a way that shapes their traits and evolution. This concept of specificity in plant–herbivore and plant–pathogen interactions is central to this special issue of Trends in Plant Science. Key questions are how plants manage to defend against diverse enemies; why plant enemies are specialized at all and if most current plant–enemy interactions are the result of a coevolutionary history. In order to address these questions, the collection of articles in this issue combines perspectives of the plant with those of its enemies. This issue also sees the launch of a new article format in the journal: TrendsTalk, which provides a perspective on the career of plant scientists. Listen to the accompanying Podcast » How plant defenses have shaped the fussy dining habits of insects, with Anurag Agrawal [EMBED] You can listen directly by clicking on the player above. For a complete list of Cell Press podcasts, you can subscribe via iTunes or view the archive. __________________________________________________________________ New article formats 2012 sees the launch of two new article formats in Trends in Plant Science: Scientific Life:TrendsTalk articles provide insight into individual scientific careers. Spotlight articles provide a forum for discussion of issues and advancements that are of broad significance to the plant science community. Topics will include future outlook essays that serve to introduce or encourage research in a new field and new insights on long-standing questions and debates. Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Jen Sheen Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Martin Heil Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Anurag Agrawal Spotlight Brassinosteroids tailor stomatal production to different environments Gustavo E. Gudesblat, Camilla Betti, and Eugenia Russinova Spotlight Towards understanding plant bioacoustics Monica Gagliano, Stefano Mancuso, and Daniel Robert Spotlight New foods for thought Kendal D. Hirschi __________________________________________________________________ Collections These collections contain Opinion and Review articles published in Trends in Plant Science within the past two years and are updated monthly. A valuable resource for students or researchers new to the field. Biotic Stress Abiotic Stress Genomics, Genetics and Molecular Evolution Cell Signalling and Gene Regulation Growth & Development Systems Biology Physiology & Metabolism Plant Biotechnology __________________________________________________________________ Most Read Articles RSS Icon Article Feed These are the five most downloaded papers for the 30 days preceding January 21, 2013. See full list of most read articles Phytoalexins in defense against pathogens Ishita Ahuja, Ralph Kissen, Atle M. Bones 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.11.002 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1181 kb); | Supplemental Data Cracking the elusive alignment hypothesis: the microtubule–cellulose synthase nexus unraveled Martin Bringmann, Benoit Landrein, Christian Schudoma, Olivier Hamant, Marie-Theres Hauser, Staffan Persson 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.003 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1935 kb); CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data Alternative splicing in plants – coming of age Naeem H. Syed, Maria Kalyna, Yamile Marquez, Andrea Barta, John W.S. Brown 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.001 Summary | Full Text | PDF (472 kb); Evolution of jasmonate and salicylate signal crosstalk Jennifer S. Thaler, Parris T. Humphrey, Noah K. Whiteman 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.02.010 Summary | Full Text | PDF (280 kb); [plant-science;pos=bottom;sz=728x90;ord=95551?] Cell Press Logo [Visit another Cell Press journal______] GO * Contact Us | * Terms and Conditions | * Privacy Policy | * SiteMap Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. skip page navigation Oregon State University Department of Horticulture Landscape Plants Images, Identification, and Information Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 Home Page __________________________________________________________________ Trying to identify a woody plant? See the new woody plant identification system. plant images __________________________________________________________________ This site was developed with partial financial support from the: Oregon Master Gardener Association and the J. Frank Schmidt Family Charitable Foundation __________________________________________________________________ This site contains images and information on over 1,700 landscape plants (mostly woody) listed in alphabetical order by genus, from Abelia to Zelkova. Because of the large number of plant entries, the site is divided into four "sub-sites" or "volumes". Volumes 1, 2 and 3 cover a separate portion of the alphabetical plant list, as shown below (or search the Common Name List). CAPTION: First letter of genus (or a Genus itself) Volume 1 A Abelia Abeliophyllum Abies Acca Acer Actinidia Adansonia Aden ium Adenocarpus Aesculus Ailanthus Akebia Albizia Alnus Amelanchier Amorpha Ampelopsis Andromeda Aralia Araucaria Arbutus Arctostaphylos Ar disis Aronia Artemisia Asimina Atriplex Aucuba Azara B Baccharis Bauhinia Berberis Betula Brachyglottis Buddleia Bumelia Buxus C Callicarpa Calluna Calocedrus Calycanthus Camellia Campsis Caragana Carissa Carnegiea Carpinus Carya Caryopteris Castanea Catalpa Cathaya Ceanothus Cedrus Celastrus Celtis Cephalanthus Cephalotaxus Cer atonia Cercidiphyllum Cercidium Cercis Cercocarpus Chaenomeles Chamaeba tiaria Chamaecyparis Chilopsis Chimonanthus Chionanthus *Chitalpa Choisya Chrysolepis Chrysothamnus Cinnamomum Cistus Cladrastis Clematis Clerodendrum Clethra Coleogyne Cornus Corylopsis Corylus Cotinus Cotoneaster Crataeg us Cryptomeria Cunninghamia *Cupressocyparisa Cupressus Cydonia Cytisus D Daboecia Daphne Daphniphyllum Dasiphora Davidia Deutzia Diospyros Dirca Disanthus Drimys E Edgeworthia Elaeagnus Encelia Enkianthus Ephedra Erica Eriob otrya Escallonia Eucalyptus Eucommia Euonymus Evodia Exochorda Volume 2 F Fagus *Fatshedera Fatsia Feijoa Ficus Firmiana Fontanesia Forsythia Fouquieria Fothergilla Fragaria Franklinia Fraxinus Fremontodend ron Fuchsia G Garrya Gaultheria Genista Ginkgo Gleditsia Grevillea Gymnocl adus H Hakea Halesia Hamamelis Hebe Hedera Heptacodium Heteromeles Hibiscus Hippophae Holodiscus Hovenia Hydrangea Hyp ericum I Iberis Idesia Ilex Illicium Itea J Jasminum Juglans Juniperus K Kalmia Kalopanax Kerria Kniphofia Koelreuteria Kolkwitzia L Laburnum Lagerstroemia Larix Larrea Laurus Lavatera Leucotho e Leycesteria Ligustrum Lindera Liquidambar Liriodendron Lithocarpus Lithodora Lonicera Loropetalum Luma M Maackia Maclura Magnolia Mahonia Malus Manglietia Maytenus Melaleuca Menziesia Metasequoia Microbiota Microcachrys Mitchella Morus Myrica Myrtus N Nandina Neviusia Nothofagus Nyssa O Oemleria Olea Olearia Oplopanaxa Osmanthus Ostrya Oxalis Ox ydendrum Volume 3 P Pachysandra Paeonia Parakmeria Parrotia Parrotiopsis Parthenocissus Passiflora Paulownia Paxistima Phellodendron Phil adelphus Phillyrea Photinia Physocarpus Picea Pieris Pinus Pistacia Pittosporum Platanus Platycarya Podocarpus Polygonum Polystichum Poncirus Populus Potentilla Prumnopitys Prunus Pseudolarix Pseu dotsuga Ptelea Pterocarya Pterostyrax Punica Purshia Pyracantha Pyrus Q Quercus Quillaja R Rhamnus Rhaphiolepis Rhododendron Rhodotypos Rhus Ribes Robinia Rosa Rosmarinus Rubus S Salix Sambucus Santolina Sapindus Sarcococca Sassafras Sciadopitys Sequoia Sequoiadendron Shepherdia Sideroxylon Simmondsia Skimmia Sophora Sorbus Spiraea Stachyurus Stewartia Styrax Symphoricarpos Sympl ocos Syringa T Taiwania Tamarix Taxodium Taxus Ternstroemia Tetradium Theve tia Thuja Thujopsis Tibouchina Tilia Toona Trachelospermum Trachyca rpus Tsuga U Ulex Ulmus Umbellularia V Vaccinium Vancouveria Viburnum Vinca Vitex Vitis W Waldsteinia Washingtonia Weigela Widdringtonia Wisteria Wolle mia X Xanthocyparis Y Yucca Z Zanthoxylum Zelkova Ziziphus The last volume covers 75 herbaceous annuals or perennials Volume 4 Herbaceous Ornamental Plants __________________________________________________________________ Some additional items: * You may search for a given plant using the Common Name List. * Plants with their names in green (for example, Acer circinatum [Vine Maple]) are native to Oregon, or have become naturalized in the State. To view the list of such woody plants select Native List. * Click here for information on USDA Hardiness Zones from the US National Arboretum. * Information on Sunset's Climate Zones for Oregon, Washington and Idaho. * Some background information on Scientific Plant Names * Glossary of Some Technical Terms * Plant Identification: Examining Leaves * References * Trying to identify an unkown woody plant? See the woody plant identification system * Oregon Master Gardener Training * It is possible to search this website using Google technology: (However, be aware that because of the way Google works recent items added to this website my not be found using this search method.) Google _______________________________ Google Search ( ) WWW (*) Oregon State Unvi., LANDSCAPE PLANTS __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 __________________________________________________________________ For comments, suggestions, or corrections concerning this site please contact Patrick Breen, CPN (Certified Plant Nerd), Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University breenp@hort.oregonstate.edu __________________________________________________________________ Want information about Oregon State University? Click on Oregon State University, or write Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-4501, USA. Phone Number: 1-541-737-1000 __________________________________________________________________ Most recent update: January 20, 2013 #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Flowering plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Flowering plants Temporal range: Early Cretaceous â Recent PreÐ Ð O S D C P T J K Pg N Magnolia virginiana Sweet Bay Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Angiospermae Lindley^[1] [P.D. Cantino & M.J. Donoghue]^[2] Clades Amborellaceae Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae * Ceratophyllaceae * Chloranthaceae * Eudicotyledoneae (eudicots) * Magnoliidae * Monocotyledoneae (monocots) Synonyms Anthophyta Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm., 1966 The flowering plants (angiosperms), also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies (derived characteristics). These characteristics include flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; they are fruiting plants, although more commonly referred to as flowering plants. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245â202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60â100 million years ago. Contents * 1 Angiosperm derived characteristics * 2 Evolution * 3 Classification + 3.1 History of classification + 3.2 Flowering plant diversity * 4 Vascular anatomy * 5 The flower, fruit, and seed + 5.1 Flowers + 5.2 Fertilization and embryogenesis + 5.3 Fruit and seed * 6 Economic importance * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 Further reading * 10 External links [edit] Angiosperm derived characteristics Bud of a pink rose * Flowers The flowers, which are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers aid angiosperms by enabling a wider range of adaptability and broadening the ecological niches open to them.^[clarification needed] This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems.^[citation needed] * Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also become modified through time^[clarification needed] to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.^[clarification needed] * Reduced male parts, three cells The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants.^[citation needed] The smaller pollen decreases the time^[clarification needed] from pollination â the pollen grain reaching the female plant â to fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination. The shorter time leads to angiosperm plants' setting seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms, which is a distinct evolutionary advantage.^[clarification needed] * Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes and controls.^[clarification needed] This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized, the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal. * Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches.^[clarification needed] * Endosperm In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans.^[citation needed] The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest. [edit] Evolution Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab apple) Further information: Evolutionary history of plants#Flowers Fossilized spores suggest that higher plants (embryophytes) have lived on the land for at least 475 million years.^[3] Early land plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Sellaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed. The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (males) of Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin.^[4] However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic (245â202 million years ago). A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.^[citation needed] The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of whole genome duplication events.^[5] These occurred at 319 million years ago and 192 million years ago respectively. The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period),^[6] while pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 million years BP. However, one study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria, traditionally considered a type of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or at least a close relative.^[7] In addition, circumstantial chemical evidence has been found for the existence of angiosperms as early as 250 million years ago. Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids.^[8]^[9] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are not known to have been flowering plants themselves. Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics ^[10]^[11] showed that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies ^[12] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.^[13] The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007 estimated that the division of the five most recent (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago.^[14] By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes, but large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the Cretaceous 65 millions years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Tertiary.^[15] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.^[16] Yet, many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Two bees on a flower head of Creeping Thistle, Cirsium arvense It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently. Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of specialization in both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). While many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.^[17] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary-inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.^[18] A few paleontologists have also come up with an idea that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the idea's biggest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or coping with predation by herbivores.^[citation needed] [edit] Classification Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae magnoliids Chloranthales monocots Ceratophyllum eudicots The phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III (2009).^[19] Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae monocots Chloranthales magnoliids Ceratophyllum eudicots Alternative phylogeny (2010)^[20] There are eight groups of living angiosperms: * Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia; * Nymphaeales, about 80 species,^[21] water lilies and Hydatellaceae; * Austrobaileyales, about 100 species^[21] of woody plants from various parts of the world; * Chloranthales, several dozen species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves; * Magnoliidae, about 9,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper; * Monocotyledonae, about 70,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leavesâfor example grasses, orchids, and palms; * Ceratophyllum, about 6 species^[21] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants; * Eudicotyledonae, about 175,000 species,^[21] characterized by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks. The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales.^[22] The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. The five other groups form the clade Mesangiospermae. The relationship between the three broadest of these groups (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots) remains unclear. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots.^[20] Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. [edit] History of classification From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek αγγείον, angeÃon (bottle, vessel) and ÏÏÎÏμα, (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carolus Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name Gymnosperms. From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. Auxanometer: Device for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today. In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003^[23] and 2009^[19] revisions, treat the flowering plants as a clade called angiosperms without a formal botanical name. However, a formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants form the Subclass Magnoliidae.^[24] The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as APG II in 2003^[23] and as APG III in 2009.^[19]^[25] Monocot (left) and dicot seedlings Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliacae) and Liliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon (plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor a reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (clade) but that the dicots do not (they are paraphyletic). Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species do form a monophyletic group, called the eudicots or tricolpates. Of the remaining dicot species, most belong to a third major clade known as the Magnoliidae, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of primitive species known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae. [edit] Flowering plant diversity A poster of twelve different species of flowers of the Asteraceae family The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.^[26]^[27]^[28] This compares to around 12,000 species of moss^[29] or 11,000 species of pteridophytes,^[30] showing that the flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II^[23] (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.^[19] The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5 clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e., lesser than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families. The 42 most-diverse of 443 families of flowering plants by species,^[31] in their APG circumscriptions, are 1. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species; 2. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950; 3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400; 4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150;^[32] 5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035; 6. Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175; 7. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735; 8. Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005; 9. Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625; 10. Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555; 11. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350; 12. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225; 13. Araceae (arum family): 4,025; 14. Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995; 15. Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870; 16. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780; 17. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710: 18. Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600; 19. Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500; 20. Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830; 21. Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740; 22. Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625; 23. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525; 24. Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500; 25. Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460; 26. Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380; 27. Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361; 28. Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220; 29. Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200; 30. Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060; 31. Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050; 32. Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025; 33. Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020; 34. Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815; 35. Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745; 36. Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700; 37. Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650; 38. Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600; 39. Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600; 40. Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580; 41. Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500; 42. Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450. Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families; Piperaceae, Lauraceae, and Annonaceae are magnoliid (acot); the others are eudicot. [edit] Vascular anatomy Cross-section of a stem of the angiosperm flax: 1. Pith, 2. Protoxylem, 3. Xylem I, 4. Phloem I, 5. Sclerenchyma (bast fibre), 6. Cortex, 7. Epidermis The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings. In the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases. [edit] The flower, fruit, and seed [edit] Flowers Main articles: Flower and Plant sexuality A collection of flowers forming an inflorescence The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence. There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls). The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self- and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. [edit] Fertilization and embryogenesis Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis Angiosperm life cycle Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into fruit and the ovule will develop into seed. [edit] Fruit and seed Main articles: Seed and Fruit The fruit of the Aesculus or Horse Chestnut tree As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently, the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry, and others. The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit. [edit] Economic importance Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) Agriculture is almost entirely dependent upon angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn â maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.). In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants is timber production. [edit] See also Portal icon Plants portal Portal icon Botany portal Portal icon Agriculture and Agronomy portal * List of garden plants * List of plants by common name * List of plant orders * List of systems of plant taxonomy [edit] References 1. ^ Lindley, J (1830). Introduction to the Natural System of Botany. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. xxxvi. 2. ^ Cantino, Philip D.; James A. Doyle, Sean W. Graham, Walter S. Judd, Richard G. Olmstead, Douglas E. 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JSTOR 1554864. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content//iapt/tax/2002/00000051/00000 003/art00009.> 27. ^ Scotland, R. W. & Wortley, A. H. (2003). "How many species of seed plants are there?". Taxon 52 (1): 101â104. doi:10.2307/3647306. JSTOR 3647306. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/000000 01/art00011. 28. ^ Govaerts, R.url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/ 00000003/art00016+(2003). "How many species of seed plants are there? â a response". Taxon 52 (3): 583â584. doi:10.2307/3647457. JSTOR 3647457.^[dead link] 29. ^ Goffinet, Bernard; William R. Buck (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification". Monographs in Systematic Botany (Missouri Botanical Garden Press) 98: 205â239. 30. ^ Raven, Peter H., Ray F. Evert, & Susan E. Eichhorn, 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th edition. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. 31. ^ Stevens, P.F. (2011). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)". http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html. 32. ^ "Kew Scientist 30 (October2006)". http://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf. [edit] Further reading * Cronquist, Arthur (1981). An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 0-231-03880-1. * Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55407-206-9. * Dilcher, D. (2000). "Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (13): 7030. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. * Simpson, M.G. Plant Systematics, 2nd Edition. Elsevier/Academic Press. 2010. * Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman. 2004. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Magnoliophyta Wikispecies has information related to: Magnoliophyta The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Magnoliophyta * Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Dr. Harmut H. Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster â Flowering Plant Systamatics * Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette. * Watson, L. and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. * Flowering plant at the Encyclopedia of Life This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. * v * t * e Botany Subdisciplines of botany * Ethnobotany * Paleobotany * Plant anatomy * Plant ecology * Plant evo-devo * Plant morphology * Plant physiology 1859-Martinique.web.jpg Plants * Evolutionary history of plants * Algae * Bryophyte * Pteridophyte * Gymnosperm * Angiosperm Plant parts * Flower * Fruit * Leaf * Meristem * Root * Stem * Stoma * Vascular tissue * Wood Plant cells * Cell wall * Chlorophyll * Chloroplast * Photosynthesis * Plant hormone * Plastid * Transpiration Plant reproduction * Alternation of generations * Gametophyte * Plant sexuality * Pollen * Pollination * Seed * Spore * Sporophyte Plant taxonomy * Botanical name * Botanical nomenclature * Herbarium * IAPT * ICN * Species Plantarum Glossaries * Glossary of botanical terms * Glossary of plant morphology * Category * Portal * v * t * e Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato Rhodophyta Cyanidiophyceae · Porphyridiophyceae · Compsopogonophyceae · Stylonematophyceae · Rhodellophyceae · Bangiophyceae · Florideophyceae (Hildenbrandiales, Acrochaetiales, Nemaliales, Batrachospermales, Corallinales, Gelidiales, Gracilariales, Ceramiales) Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis · Cyanophora · Gloeochaete Viridiplantae/ Plantae sensu stricto Chlorophyta/GA Prasinophyceae UTC clade: Ulvophyceae · Trebouxiophyceae · Chlorophyceae Streptophyta Charophyta/GA Charales · Coleochaetales · Desmidiales · Klebsormidiales · Mesostigmatales · Zygnematales Embryophyta/ Plantae sensu strictissimo Bryophytes (non-vascular) Marchantiophyta · Anthocerotophyta · Bryophyta "Moss" · Horneophytopsida Tracheophyta Lycopodiophyta Isoetopsida (Isoetales, Selaginellales) · Lycopodiopsida (Lycopodiales) Euphyllophyta Moniliformopses (Equisetopsida, Filicopsida, Psilotopsida) Spermatophyta: Gymnosperm (Pinophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta) · Magnoliophyta See also: list of plant orders Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flowering_plant&oldid=533330 678" Categories: * Angiosperms * Plant taxonomy * Plants * Pollination * Plant sexuality Hidden categories: * All articles with dead external links * Articles with dead external links from April 2012 * Articles with 'species' microformats * Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012 * All articles with unsourced statements * Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 * Articles needing additional references from April 2012 * All articles needing additional references * Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with no article parameter * Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * Afrikaans * اÙعربÙØ© * Aragonés * AzÉrbaycanca * বাà¦à¦²à¦¾ * Bân-lâm-gú * Basa Banyumasan * ÐаÑҡоÑÑÑа * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ (ÑаÑаÑкевÑÑа)â * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Cymraeg * Dansk * Deutsch * Dolnoserbski * Eesti * Îλληνικά * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Gaelg * Galego * íêµì´ * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Hornjoserbsce * Hrvatski * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * á¥áá áá£áá * Kreyòl ayisyen * Kurdî * Latina * LatvieÅ¡u * Lëtzebuergesch * Lietuvių * Lumbaart * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * മലയാളഠ* Bahasa Melayu * NÄhuatl * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Nordfriisk * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Occitan * ÐлÑк маÑий * Ù¾ÙØ¬Ø§Ø¨Û * Plattdüütsch * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Runa Simi * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Sicilianu * Simple English * SlovenÄina * SlovenÅ¡Äina * СÑпÑки / srpski * Srpskohrvatski / ÑÑпÑкоÑÑваÑÑки * Suomi * Svenska * Tagalog * தமிழ௠* à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * Lea faka-Tonga * Türkçe * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ارد٠* Vepsän kelâ * Tiếng Viá»t * ××Ö´××ש * Zazaki * ŽemaitÄÅ¡ka * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 16 January 2013 at 06:53. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Advertisement. EnchantedLearning.com is a user-supported site. As a bonus, site members have access to a banner-ad-free version of the site, with print-friendly pages. Click here to learn more. Become a member of Enchanted Learning. Site subscriptions last 12 months. Click here for more information on site membership. As low as $20.00/year (directly by Credit Card) Click Here to Subscribe by Credit Card Site members have access to the entire website with print-friendly pages and no ads. (Already a member? Click here.) Our subscribers' grade-level estimate for this page: 4th - 5th [labelsmall.GIF] Plant Anatomy: Label Me! Printout EnchantedLearning.com Plant Anatomy Go to Plant Printouts Tree Anatomy Tree Anatomy: Label Me! Printout peanut plant A plant is a member of the kingdom Plantae, a living organism that utilizes photosynthesis, a process in which energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy (food). Plants are at the base of the food web and are autotrophs (or producers - organisms that make their own food). Plants vary greatly in size, shape, and the type of environment in which they live. Structure and Function: Roots anchor the plant in the ground and absorb water and mineral nutrients from the ground. Leaves contain chloroplasts, in which photosynthesis occurs. Carbon dioxide is absorbed through pores in the leaves; oxygen is produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released. Plant cells have a supportive cellulose cell wall (unlike animal cells which lack cellulose). The following is a diagram of the external anatomy of a typical flowering plant: [anatomy.GIF] axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole. axillary bud - a bud that develops in the axil. flower - the reproductive unit of angiosperms. flower stalk - the structure that supports the flower. internode - the area of the stem between any two adjacent nodes. lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of the stem of a plant. leaf - an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most leaves are flat and contain chloroplasts; their main function is to convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis. node - the part of the stem of a plant from which a leaf, branch, or aerial root grows; each plant has many nodes. Label the two lower nodes (the first and second nodes) on the plant diagram. petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant. root - a root is a plant structure that obtains food and water from the soil, stores energy, and provides support for the plant. Most roots grow underground. root cap - a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the apical meristem (the actively growing region) of the root. stem - (also called the axis) is the main support of the plant. tap root - the main root of some plants; the tap root extends straight down under the plant. terminal bud - a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem. Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical meristem, consisting of cells that can divide indefinitely. Phyla: The phyla in the kingdom Plantae include: Ginkgophyta, Lycophyta (lower ferns like club mosses), Pterophyta (ferns), Psilophyta (whisk ferns), Anthophyta (flowering plants), Gnetophyta, Sphenophyta, Coniferophyta (conifers), Cycadophyta (cycads), Sphenophyta, and Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts, hornworts). fir Plant Printouts EnchantedLearning.com Botany and Paleobotany Dictionary yucca Plants A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Click on an underlined word for more information on that subject. 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Advertisement. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c)2000-2010 EnchantedLearning.com ------ How to cite a web page #7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 front page Index 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Search 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Copyright Printable version Search Search ____________________ GO logo INRA Partenaires-TOP Identify yourself * Home page * Sessions * Keynotes * Program / Guideline * Submission * Registration 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference 2012 home page 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference (20-24 August 2012) 20-24 August 2012 Centre Diocésain 133 Avenue République 63051 Clermont-Ferrand, France What is Plant Biomechanics ? Plant Biomechanics is the study of the structures and functions of biological systems from the plant phylum (Plantae) with the help of concepts and methods of mechanics [1-5] (....) Read more ( into a pdf file) The Plant Biomechanics International Conferences : Plant biomechanics is an expanding interdisciplinary field, at the interfaces of biology, mechanics, physics and engineering. Despite its broad range of studies, it has long been felt that the researchers dealing with biomechanics have a lot to share. The first Plant Biomechanics International Conference was organized in Montpellier (France) in 1994. The 2^nd PBMIC was held in 1997 in Reading (UK), the 3^rd in 2000, in Badenweiler (Germany), the 4^th in 2003 was in Lansing (MI USA), the 5^th in 2006 was in Stockholm (Sweden), the 6^th in 2009 was in Cayenne (FG) in South America Over the years, the Plant Biomechanics International Conference has become the central event of the Plant Biomechanics research community, as well as a unique place for interdisciplinary exchanges around the amazing features that Plants have evolved to sense, acclimate and adapt to the mechanical challenges they have been submitted to. Welcome to Plant-BioMech 2012 in Clermont–Ferrand ! On behalf of all the French Plant Biomechanics community and of our International Board , Scientific and Organizing Committees, we are thus pleased to invite you to Clermont-Ferrand (France) to participate in the 7^th Plant Biomechanics International Conference. In the centre of Europe's largest regional nature park (the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Nature Park) and in the historic and active city of Clermont-Ferrand, you will enjoy the interactive overview over the research on plant biomechanics and mechanobiology from all over the world. We are really looking forward to meet you there! Dr Bruno Moulia, Dr Meriem Fournier Chairs of PBMC 2012 News Poster award All the posters have been reviewed and rated by an award committee (members of IAB and session organizers). Each day, the two highest scoring posters according to the following criteria have been awarded. Read more Important Facts The REGISTRATION is CLOSED since July 15 2012 . To see the FINAL PROGRAM go to Program/Guideline Read more Pour les Francophones et le Grand Public La Biomécanique traite des effets physiques et biologiques des sollicitations mécaniques externes (vent, courants aquatiques) et internes (turgescence, pressions tissulaires) sur le développement et le fonctionnement des plantes Read more General Chairs Int. Advisory Board Scient. Committee Org. Committee Partners Accommodation Social Program Touristic Info Access Plan Restricted Access * cadenas Scientific committee space * cadenas Organizers space www.inra.fr © INRA 2011 Contact | Legal-notice * Skip to navigation (Press Enter). * Skip to main content (Press Enter). * + + About the Institute o Profile o Organization # Scientific Advisory Board # Board of Trustees o History o Scienctific Organizational Chart + Research o Scientific Departments # Department of Plant Developmental Biology @ Groups # Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics @ Groups # Department of Plant Microbe Interactions @ Research Highlights @ Groups @ Research Groups affiliated with the Department @ Computational Biology @ Fungal Genomes @ Are you interested in joining our research teams? # Department of Comparative Development and Genetics o Independent Research Groups o Groups A - Z + Graduates o IMPRS o PhDs + Postdocs + Services o Scientific Service Groups o General Service Groups o Childcare + Reports and Publications o Publications o Annual Reports o Yearbook + Public Outreach + News o Paul Schulze-Lefert was awarded an ERC advanced grant o Press Releases o Event Calender o News Archive + Contact + Intranet ____________________ Submit * Contact * Sitemap * Intranet * * Deutsch * Home Information for Students Guests Journalists Alumnis Job Opportunities Job Offers * Postdoctoral position on axillary meristem formation in barley December 18, 2012 * 14 Doctoral Studentships December 13, 2012 More Job opportunities in German Events Events * Characterizing the circadian clock in seasonally variable settings 23 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * Genetic and Genomic Dissection of Maize Root System Development 30 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * The genomic organization of virulence in the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum 06 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * title pending 13 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall News * Support of the MPIPZ International Max Planck Research School granted for another 6 years December 05, 2012 * European research council (ERC) awarded an ERC advanced grant to Paul Schulze-Lefert November 12, 2012 * Symposium Next Generation Plant Science 2012 November 07, 2012 Research News * Differences in the genomes of related plant pathogens August 12, 2012 * Bacterial community inside the plant root August 02, 2012 * An international consortium sequences the tomtato genome May 30, 2012 * Early flowering caused by faulty biological clock May 14, 2012 * Pod corn develops leaves in the inflorescences April 24, 2012 * Plants use mobile proteins to defend themselves against bacteria December 09, 2011 Profile The Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research conducts basic molecular biological research on plants with the goal of developing more efficient breeding techniques and environmentally sound plant protection strategies for industrial crops. [more] Teaser_image_horizontal Department of Plant Developmental Biology Plants spend their life in one position, and thrive in locations where they are exposed to a wide variety of environmental conditions. This versatility is possible because plants continuously monitor and respond to environmental stimuli such as light, temperature and the availability of nutrients. Such responses alter the growth habit and form of the plant adapting it to its particular environment. [more] Intro_dpt_koornneef_neu_322_191 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics The genetic diversity between plant species is huge as observed by the large differences in many traits. However also within species substantial genetic variation is present in nature or has been generated by breeders and researchers. Mildew_haustorium3_bearb_richard_322_jpg Department of Plant Microbe Interactions Research in the department of Plant Microbe Interactions engages in fundamental molecular processes underlying interactions between plants and pathogens. The innate immune system of plants and mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis have a central role in our discovery program. [more] Mt_hpage_322x191_160712 Department of Comparative Development and Genetics Research in the Department of Comparative Development and Genetics aims to attain a predictive understanding of how biological forms develop and diversify, by using a combination of genetics, biological imaging, genomics and computational modelling. To empower their work scientists in the Department developed Cardamine hirsuta- a small crucifer related to the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana- into a powerful genetic system. Comparative studies between these two species and other seed plants aids them in uncovering the mechanistic basis for plant diversity and helps them formulate general hypotheses about how morphology evolves. [more] (c) 2003-2013, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Muenchen * Imprint * Recommend * Print http://www.mpipz.mpg.de/2169/en loading content Skip to main content __________________________________________________________________ Cornell University Cornell University Animal Science SEARCH: ____________________ go (*) Animal Science ( ) Cornell more options __________________________________________________________________ Plants Poisonous to Livestock __________________________________________________________________ * Home Page * Search Database * Find:-by botanical name-by common name * Scientific & Common Name Equivalents * Toxic Agents * Commonly Affected Species * Medicinal Plants * FAQs * Other Sites Plants Poisonous to Livestock and other Animals This is a growing reference that includes plant images, pictures of affected animals and presentations concerning the botany, chemistry, toxicology, diagnosis and prevention of poisoning of animals by plants and other natural flora (fungi, etc.). [a_muscaria_s.jpg] IMPORTANT:Just because something is on the poisonous plants list doesn't mean it can't be a good food or feed, and just because it is absent from the list doesn't mean it is safe! Many original images were provided by Dr. Mary C. Smith of the Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine. Additional images, text and web pages by Dan Brown and staff. The students of Nutritional Toxicology (Animal Science 625) have also made large contributions through web pages created as term projects. The frequently asked questions is a compilation of some of the questions we have received via email over the years. These pages are maintained by the Animal Science Department at Cornell University as a reference only. We have no physicians on staff to answer one-on-one questions about specific plants or poisons, especially as they apply to humans. We suggest you contact your local state or regional poison control center. For information on who to call or email in your area, visit Poison Control and Prevention Center Directory. Of course, if you have someone who has collapsed or has trouble breathing, you should call 911 before searching for a poison control center. For questions regarding the accuracy of the content of these pages, contact Dan Brown . (c)2013 Cornell University | CALS Home | Animal Science Home | Contact Webmaster | #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Succulent plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with cactus; botanically cacti are succulents but not all succulents are cacti. Succulent plants, such as this Aloe, store water in their fleshy leaves In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents or sometimes fat plants, are plants having some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. Succulent plants may store water in various structures, such as leaves and stems. Some definitions also include roots, so that geophytes that survive unfavourable periods by dying back to underground storage organs may be regarded as succulents. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" is often used in a way which excludes plants that botanists would regard as succulents, such as cacti. Succulents are grown as ornamental plants because of their striking and unusual appearance. Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Appearance * 3 Habitat * 4 Evolution * 5 Families and genera * 6 See also * 7 References * 8 Bibliography * 9 External links [edit] Definition There are a number of somewhat different definitions of the term "succulent". One difference lies in whether or not roots are included in the parts of a plant which make it a succulent. Some authors include roots, as in the definition "plants in which the leaves, stem or roots have become more than usually fleshy by the development of water-storing tissue."^[1] Others exclude roots, as in the definition "a plant with thick, fleshy and swollen stems and/or leaves, adapted to dry environments".^[2] This difference affects the relationship between succulents and "geophytes" â plants that survive unfavourable seasons as a resting bud on an underground organ.^[3] These underground organs, such as bulbs, corms and tubers, are often fleshy with water-storing tissues. Thus if roots are included in the definition, many geophytes would be classed as succulents. Plants adapted to living in dry environments are termed "xerophytes"; thus succulents are often xerophytes. However, not all xerophytes are succulents, since there are other ways of adapting to a shortage of water, e.g. by developing small leaves which may roll up or having leathery rather than succulent leaves.^[4] Nor are all succulents xerophytes, since plants like Crassula helmsii are both succulent and aquatic.^[5] Those who grow succulents as a hobby use the term in a different way to botanists. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" regularly excludes cacti. For example, Jacobsen's three volume Handbook of Succulent Plants does not cover cacti,^[6] and "cacti and succulents" is the title or part of the title of many books covering the cultivation of these plants.^[7]^[8]^[9] However, in botanical terminology, cacti are succulents.^[1] Horticulturalists may also exclude other groups of plants, e.g. bromeliads.^[10] A practical, but unscientific, horticultural definition is "a succulent plant is any desert plant that a succulent plant collector wishes to grow".^[11] Such plants less often include geophytes (in which the swollen storage organ is wholly underground) but do include plants with a caudex,^[12] which is a swollen above-ground organ at soil level, formed from a stem, a root or both.^[3] A further difficulty is that plants are not either "succulent" or "non-succulent". In many genera and families there is a continuous sequence from plants with thin leaves and normal stems to those with very clearly thickened and fleshy leaves or stems, so that deciding what is a succulent is often arbitrary. Different sources may classify the same plant differently.^[13] [edit] Appearance A collection of succulent plants, including cacti The storage of water often gives succulent plants a more swollen or fleshy appearance than other plants, a characteristic known as succulence. In addition to succulence, succulent plants variously have other water-saving features. These may include: * Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to minimize water loss * absent, reduced, or cylindrical-to-spherical leaves * reduction in the number of stomata * stems as the main site of photosynthesis, rather than leaves * compact, reduced, cushion-like, columnar, or spherical growth form * ribs enabling rapid increases in plant volume and decreasing surface area exposed to the sun * waxy, hairy, or spiny outer surface to create a humid micro-habitat around the plant, which reduces air movement near the surface of the plant, and thereby reduces water loss and creates shade * roots very near the surface of the soil, so they are able to take up moisture from very small showers or even from heavy dew * ability to remain plump and full of water even with high internal temperatures (e.g. 52 °C/126 °F)^[14] * very impervious outer cuticle (skin)^[14] * mucilaginous substances, which retain water abundantly^[14] [edit] Habitat Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) Many succulents come from the dry areas of the tropics and subtropics, such as steppes, semi-desert, and desert. High temperatures and low precipitation force plants to collect and store water to survive long dry periods. Succulents also occur as epiphytes, "air plants", as such they have limited or no contact with the ground, and are dependent on their ability to store water. Succulents also occur as inhabitants of sea coasts and dry lakes, which are exposed to high levels of dissolved minerals that are deadly to many other plant species. [edit] Evolution Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) The best-known succulents are cacti (family: Cactaceae). Virtually all cacti are succulents, but not all succulents are cacti. A unique feature of cacti is the possession of areoles, structures from which spines and flowers are produced. To differentiate between these two basic types that seem so similar, but that are unrelated succulent plants, use of the terms, cactus or cacti, only should be used to describe succulents in the cactus family. Popular collection of these types of plants has led to many Old World plants becoming established in the wild in the New World, and vice versa. [edit] Families and genera This section includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but the sources of this section remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2012) Apocynaceae: Pachypodium lealii, stem succulent Asphodelaceae: Haworthia arachnoidea, leaf succulent Cactaceae: Rebutia muscula, stem succulent Crassulaceae: Crassula ovata, stem and leaf succulent Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia obesa ssp. symmetrica, stem succulent Cylindropuntia imbricata: stem, woody succulent Malvaceae: Adansonia digitata, stem succulent Moringaceae: Moringa ovalifolia, stem succulent Nolinaceae: Beaucarnea recurvata, stem succulent Asparagaceae: Dracaena draco, stem succulent Euphorbia resinifera Plant families and genera in which succulent species occur are listed below. Order Alismatales * Araceae: Zamioculcas Order Apiales * Apiaceae: Steganotaenia * Araliaceae: Cussonia Order Asparagales * Amaryllidaceae (geophytes): Ammocharis, Apodolirion, Boophone, Brunsvigia, Crinum, Crossyne, Cryptostephanus, Cyrtanthus, Gethyllis, Habranthus, Haemanthus, Hessea, Nerine, Pancratium, Rauhia, Scadoxus, Strumaria, Zephyranthes, * Asparagaceae + subfamily Agavoideae: Agave, Beschorneria, Chlorophytum, Furcraea, Hesperaloe, Hesperoyucca, Yucca + subfamily Asparagoideae: Myrsiphyllum (now Asparagus) + subfamily Lomandroideae: Cordyline, + subfamily Nolinoideae: Beaucarnea, Calibanus, Dasylirion, Dracaena (plant), Nolina, Sansevieria,Eriospermum (geophyte) + subfamily Scilloideae (geophytes, a few succulent geophytes): Albuca, Bowiea, Daubenya, Dipcadi, Drimia, Drimiopsis, Eucomis, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Ledebouria, Litanthus, Massonia, Merwilla, Namophila, Ornithogalum, Polyxena, Pseudogaltonia, Pseudoprospero, Resnova, Rhadamanthus, Rhodocodon, Schizobasis, Schizocarphus, Spetaea, Urginea, Veltheimia, Whiteheadia * Doryanthaceae: Doryanthes * Hypoxidaceae (geophytes): Empodium, Hypoxis, Pauridia, Saniella, Spiloxene * Iridaceae (geophytes): Babiana, Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, Devia, Dierama, Dietes, Duthiastrum, Ferraria, Freesia, Geissorhiza, Gladiolus, Hesperantha, Ixia, Lapeirousia, Melasphaerula, Micranthus, Moraea, Pillansia, Radinosiphon, Romulea, Sparaxis, Syringodea, Thereianthus, Tritonia, Tritoniopsis, Watsonia, Xenoscapa * Orchidaceae (succulents) Acampe, Aerangis, Ansellia, Bolusiella, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Cyrtorchis, Oberonia, Polystachya, Tridactyle, Vanilla (succulent geophytes) Eulophia, Liparis, Oeceoclades (geophytes) Acroliphia, Bartholina, Bonatea, Brachycorythis, Brownleea, Centrostigma, Ceratandra, Corycium, Cynorkis, Didymoplexis, Disa, Disperis, Dracomonticola, Eulophia, Evotella, Gastrodia, Habernaria, Holothrix, Huttonaea, Neobolusia, Nervilia, Plicosepalus, Pachites, Platycoryne * + subfamily Epidendroideae Phalaenopsis * Xanthorrheaceae Xanthorrhoea + subfamily Asphodelaceae: Aloe (succulents and succulent geophytes), Astroloba, x Astroworthia, Bulbine (succulent geophytes, succulents, and geophytes), Bulbinella (geophyte), Chortolirion (succulent geophytes), Gasteria, Haworthia, Poellnitzia, Trachyandra (succulent geophytes and succulents), Order Asterales * Asteraceae: Arctotheca, Baeriopsis, Cadiscus, Chrysanthemoides, Coulterella, Crassocephalum, Didelta, Emilia, Eremothamnus, Gymnodiscus, Gynura, Hillardiella (geophyte), Lopholaena, Monoculus, Nidorella, Osteospermum, Othonna (succulents and succulent geophytes), Phaneroglossa, Poecilolepis, Polyachyrus, Pteronia, Senecio, Solanecio,Tripteris * Campanulaceae: Brighamia Order Brassicales * Brassicaceae: Heliophila, Lepidium * Capparidaceae: Maerua * Caricaceae: Carica, Jacarathia * Moringaceae: Moringa Order Caryophyllales * Aizoaceae: Corbichonia, Gisekia, Herreanthus, Limeum, Ophthalmophyllum, Saphesia + subfamily Aizooideae: Acrosanthes, Aizoanthemum, Aizoon, Galenia, Gunniopsis, Plinthus, Tetragonia + subfamily Mesembryanthemoideae (syn. Mesembryanthemaceae^[15]): Amoebophyllum (non-current), Aptenia, Aridaria, Aspazoma, Berrisfordia (non-current), Brownanthus, Calamophyllum, Caulipsilon, Dactylopsis,Ectotropis (non-current), Eurystigma (non-current), Halenbergia (non-current),Hameria, Hartmanthus, Herrea (non-current), Herreanthus (now Conophytum), Hydrodea (non-current), Hymenogyne, Kensitia (non-current),Marlothistela, Maughaniella (non-current), Mesembryanthemum, Micropterum (non-current), Mimetophytum(non-current), Neorhine (non-current), Nycteranthus (non-current), Pherelobus (non-current), Phiambolia, Phyllobolus, Platythyra (non-current), Prenia, Psicaulon, Ruschiella, Sarozona,Sceletium, Semnanthe (now Erepsia), Sphalmanthus (non-current),Synaptophyllum + subfamily Ruschioideae: o tribe Apatesieae: Apatesia, Carpanthea, Caryotophora, Conicosia, Hymenogyne, Saphesia, Skiatophytum o tribe Dorotheantheae: Aethephyllum Cleretum Dorotheanthus o tribe Ruschiae: Acrodon, Aloinopsis, Amphibolia, Antegibbaeum, Antimima, Arenifera, Argyroderma, Astridia, Bergeranthus, Bijlia, Braunsia, Brianhuntleya, Carpobrotus, Carruanthus, Cephalophyllum, Cerochlamys, Chasmatophyllum, Cheiridopsis, Circandra, Conophytum, Corpuscularia, Cylindrophyllum, Delosperma, Dicrocaulon, Didymaotus, Dinteranthus, Diplosoma, Disphyma, Dracophilus, Drosanthemum, Eberlanzia, Ebracteola, Enarganthe, Erepsia, Esterhuysenia, Faucaria, Fenestraria, Frithia, Gibbaeum, Glottiphyllum, Hallianthus, Hereroa, Ihlenfeldtia, Imitaria, Jacobsenia, Jensenobotrya, Jordaaniella, Juttadinteria, Khadia, Lampranthus, Lapidaria (plant), Leipoldtia, Lithops, Machairophyllum, Malephora, Mestoklema, Meyerophytum, Mitrophyllum, Monilaria, Mossia, Muiria, Namaquanthus, Namibia, Nananthus, Nelia, Neohenricia, Octopoma, Odontophorus (plant), Oophytum, Ophthalmophyllum, Orthopterum, Oscularia, Ottosonderia, Pleiospilos, Polymita, Psammophora, Rabiea, Rhinephyllum, Rhombophyllum, Ruschia, Ruschianthemum, Ruschianthus, Schlechteranthus, Schwantesia, Scopelogena, Smicrostigma, Stayneria, Stoeberia, Stomatium Tanquana Titanopsis, Trichodiadema, Vanheerdea, Vanzijlia, Vlokia, Wooleya, Zeuktophyllum + subfamily Sesuvioideae: Cypselea, Sesuvium, Trianthema, Tribulocarpus, Zaleya * Amaranthaceae: + subfamily Amaranthoideae: Arthraerva + subfamily Chenopodiaceae^[16]: Atriplex, Chenopodium, Dissocarpus, Einadia, Enchylaena, Eremophea, Halopeplis, Maireana, Malacocera, Neobassia, Osteocarpum, Rhagodia, Roycea, Halosarcia, Salicornia, Salsola, Sarcocornia, Sclerochlamys, Sclerolaena, Sueda, Tecticornia, Threlkeldia * Basellaceae: Anredera, Basella * Cactaceae: Acanthocalycium, Acanthocereus, Ariocarpus, Armatocereus, Arrojadoa, Arthrocereus, Astrophytum, Austrocactus, Aztekium, Bergerocactus, Blossfeldia, Brachycereus, Browningia, Brasilicereus, Calymmanthium, Carnegiea, Cephalocereus, Cephalocleistocactus, Cereus, Cintia, Cipocereus, Cleistocactus, Coleocephalocereus, Copiapoa, Corryocactus, Coryphantha, Dendrocereus, Denmoza, Discocactus, Disocactus, Echinocactus, Echinocereus, Echinopsis, Epiphyllum, Epithelantha, Eriosyce, Escobaria, Escontria, Espostoa, Espostoopsis, Eulychnia, Facheiroa, Ferocactus, Frailea, Geohintonia, Gymnocalycium, Haageocereus, Harrisia, Hatiora, Hylocereus, Jasminocereus, Lasiocereus, Leocereus, Lepismium, Leptocereus, Leuchtenbergia, Lophophora, Maihuenia, Malacocarpus, Mammillaria, Mammilloydia, Matucana, Melocactus, Micranthocereus, Mila, Monvillea, Myrtillocactus, Neobuxbaumia, Neolloydia, Neoraimondia, Neowerdermannia, Obregonia, Opuntia, Oreocereus, Oroya, Ortegocactus, Pachycereus, Parodia, Pediocactus, Pelecyphora, Peniocereus, Pereskia, Pereskiopsis, Pilosocereus, Polaskia, Praecereus, Pseudoacanthocereus, Pseudorhipsalis, Pterocactus, Pygmaeocereus, Quiabentia, Rauhocereus, Rebutia, Rhipsalis, Samaipaticereus, Schlumbergera, Sclerocactus, Selenicereus, Stenocactus, Stenocereus, Stephanocereus, Stetsonia, Strombocactus, Tacinga, Thelocactus,Trichocereus Turbinicarpus, Uebelmannia, Weberbauerocereus, Weberocereus, Yungasocereus * Didiereaceae: Alluaudia, Alluaudiopsis, Decaria, Didierea * Molluginaceae: Hypertelis * Phytolaccaceae: Phytolacca * Portulacaceae: Amphipetalum, Anacampseros, Avonia, Calyptrotheca, Ceraria, Cistanthe, Calandrinia, Dendroportulaca, Grahamia, Lewisia, Parakeelya (this name is not accepted by the Australian State and National Herbaria),^[17] Portulaca, Portulacaria, Schreiteria, Talinella, Talinum Order Commelinales * Commelinaceae: Aneilema, Callisia, Cyanotis, Tradescantia, Tripogandra Order Cornales * Loasaceae: Schismocarpus Order Cucurbitales * Begoniaceae: Begonia * Cucurbitaceae: Acanthosicyos, Apodanthera, Brandegea, Cephalopentandra, Ceratosanthes, Citrullus, Coccinia, Corallocarpus, Cucumella, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Cyclantheropsis, Dactyliandra, Dendrosicyos, Doyera, Eureindra, Fevillea, Gerrandanthus, Gynostemma, Halosicyos, Ibervilla, Kedostris, Lagenaria, Marah, Momordica, Neoalsomitra, Odosicyos, Parasicyos, Syrigia, Telfairia, Trochomeria, Trochomeriopsis, Tumamoca, Xerosicyos, Zehneria, Zygosicyos Order Diascoreales * Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea (geophytic succulent) Order Ericales * Balsaminaceae: Impatiens * Ericaceae: Sphyrospermum * Fouquieriaceae: Fouquieria Order Fabales * Fabaceae: Delonix, Dolichos, Erythrina, Lotononis, Neorautanenia, Pachyrhizus, Tylosema Order Gentianales * Apocynaceae: Adenium, Mandevilla, Pachypodium, Plumeria + subfamily Asclepiadoideae (syn. Asclepiadaceae): Absolmsia, Australluma, Aspidoglossum, Aspidonepsis, Baynesia, Brachystelma, Ceropegia, Chlorocyathus, Cibirhiza, Cordylogyne, Cynanchum, Dischidia, Dischidiopsis, Duvaliandra, Eustegia, Fanninia, Fockea, Glossostelma, Hoya, Ischnolepis, Lavrania, Marsdenia, Miraglossum, Odontostelma, Ophionella, Orbeanthus, Pachycarpus, Parapodium (plant), Periglossum, Petopentia, Raphionacme (geophyte), Riocreuxia, Sarcorrhiza, Schizoglossum, Schlechterella, Stathmostelma, Stenostelma, Stomatostemma, Trachycalymma, Trichocaulon, Tylophora, Woodia, Xysmalobium o tribe Asclepiadeae: # subtribe Asclepiadne: Asclepias, # subtribe Cynanchinae: Sarcostemma, # subtribe Gonolobinae: Matelea, o tribe Maxillarieae: # subtribe Lycastinae: Rudolfiella o tribe Stapeliae: Angolluma, Caralluma, Desmidorchis, Duvalia, Echidnopsis, Edithcolea, Frerea, Hoodia, Huernia, Huerniopsis, Larryleachia, Notechidnopsis, Orbea (plant), Orbeopsis, Piaranthus, Pachycymbium, Pectinaria, Pseudolithos, Pseudopectinaria, Quaqua, Rhytidocaulon, Stapelia, Stapelianthus, Stapeliopsis, Tavaresia, Tridentea, Tromotriche, Whitesloanea + subfamily Periplocoideae: o tribe Cryptolepideae: Cryptolepis * Rubiaceae: Anthorrhiza, Anthospermum, Hydnophythum, Hydrophylax, Myrmecodia, Myrmephythum, Phylohydrax, Squamellaria Order Geraniales * Geraniaceae: Monsonia, Pelargonium (succulents and geophytes), Sarcocaulon Order Lamiales * Gesneriaceae: Aeschynanthus, Alsobia, Chirita, Codonanthe, Columnea, Nematanthus, Sinningia, Streptocarpus * Lamiaceae: Aeollanthus, Dauphinea, Perrierastrum, Plectranthus, Rotheca, Solenostemon, Tetradenia, Thorncroftia * Lentibulariaceae * Pedaliaceae: Holubia, Pterodiscus, Sesamothamnus, Uncarina Order Malpighiales * Euphorbiaceae: Cnidoscolus, Euphorbia, Jatropha, Monadenium, Pedilanthus, Phyllanthus, Synadenium * Passifloraceae: Adenia * Phyllanthaceae: Phyllanthus Order Malvales * Cochlospermaceae * Malvaceae: Adansonia, Cavanillesia, Ceiba, Pseudobombax * + subgroup Sterculiaceae: Brachychiton, Sterculia Order Myrtales * Melastomataceae: Medinilla Order Oxalidales * Oxalidaceae (geophytes): Oxalis Order Piperales * Piperaceae: Peperomia Order Poales * Bromeliaceae: Abromeitiella, Aechmea, Ananas, Catopsis, Connellia, Dyckia, Hechtia, Neoregelia, Puya (genus), Tillandsia, Vriesea * Poaceae: Dregeochloa^[18] Order Ranunculales * Menispermaceae: Chasmanthera, Stephania, Tinospora Order Rosales * Moraceae: Dorstenia, Ficus * Urticaceae: Laportea, Obetia, Pilea, Pouzolzia, Sarcopilea Order Santalales * Loranthaceae: Actinanthella, Agelanthus, Erianthemum, Helixanthera, Moquiniella, Oncocalyx, Pedistylis, Plicosepalus, Septulina, Tapinanthus, Vanwykia * Viscaceae(synonym Santalaceae): Viscum Order Sapindales * Anacardiaceae: Operculicaria, Pachycormus * Burseraceae: Boswellia, Bursera, Commiphora * Meliaceae: Entandrophragma * Sapindaceae: Erythrophysa Order Saxifragales * Crassulaceae: Adromischus, Aeonium, Afrovivella, Aichryson, Bryophyllum, Cotyledon, Crassula, Cremnophila, à Cremnosedum, Dudleya, Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Greenovia, Hylotelephium, Hypagophytum, Jovibarba, Kalanchoe, Lenophyllum, Meterostachys, Monanthes, Orostachys, Pachyphytum, Perrierosedum, Phedimus, Pistorinia, Prometheum, Pseudosedum, Rhodiola, Rosularia, Sedella, Sedum, Sempervivum, Sinocrassula, Thompsonella, Tacitus, Tylecodon, Umbilicus, Villadia * Saxifragaceae Order Solanales * Convolvulaceae: Ipomea, Merremia, Stictocardia, Turbina * Solanaceae: Nolana Order Vitales * Vitaceae: Cissus, Cyphostemma Order Zygophyllales * Zygophyllaceae: Augea, Seetzenia, Zygophyllum (unplaced order)* Boraginaceae: Heliotropium (unplaced order)* Icacinaceae: Pyrenacantha (geophyte) For some families, most members are succulent; for example the Cactaceae, Agavaceae, Aizoaceae, and Crassulaceae. The table below shows the number of succulent species found in some families: Family Succulent # Modified parts Distribution Agavaceae 300 Leaf North and Central America Cactaceae 1600 Stem (root, leaf) The Americas Crassulaceae 1300 Leaf (root) Worldwide Aizoaceae 2000 Leaf Southern Africa, Australia Apocynaceae 500 Stem Africa, Arabia, India, Australia Didiereaceae 11 Stem Madagascar (endemic) Euphorbiaceae > 1000 Stem and/or leaf and/or root Australia, Africa, Madagascar, Asia, the Americas, Europe Asphodelaceae 500 Leaf Africa, Madagascar, Australia Portulacaceae ? Leaf and stem The Americas, Australia, Africa [edit] See also * Crassulacean acid metabolism * Cactus and Succulent Society of America [edit] References 1. ^ ^a ^b Rowley 1980, p. 1 2. ^ Beentje 2010, p. 116 3. ^ ^a ^b Beentje 2010, p. 32 4. ^ "xerophyte", Dictionary of Botany, 2001 onwards, http://botanydictionary.org/xerophyte.html, retrieved 2012-09-23 5. ^ "Crassula helmsii (aquatic plant, succulent)", Global Invasive Species Database, ISSG, April 15, 2010, http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1517&fr=1&sts=s ss&lang=EN, retrieved 2012-09-23 6. ^ Jacobsen 1960 7. ^ Anderson 1999 8. ^ Hecht 1994 9. ^ Hewitt 1993 10. ^ Innes & Wall 1995 11. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977 12. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977, pp. 19-20 13. ^ Rowley 1980, p. 2 14. ^ ^a ^b ^c Compton n.d. 15. ^ Plants of Southern Africa Retrieved on 2010-1-1 16. ^ FloraBase - The Western Australian Flora Retrieved on 2010-1-1 17. ^ Australian Plant Names Index Retrieved on 2010-1-1 18. ^ PlantZAfrica Retrieved on 2010-1-1 [edit] Bibliography * Anderson, Miles (1999), Cacti and Succulents : Illustrated Encyclopedia, Oxford: Sebastian Kelly, ISBN 978-1-84081-253-4 * Beentje, Henk (2010), The Kew Plant Glossary, Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9 * Compton, R.H., ed. (n.d.), Our South African Flora, Cape Times Ltd, OCLC 222867742 (publication date also given as 1930s or 1940s) * Hecht, Hans (1994), Cacti & Succulents (p/b ed.), New York: Sterling, ISBN 978-0-8069-0549-5 * Hewitt, Terry (1993), The Complete Book of Cacti & Succulents, London: Covent Garden Books, ISBN 978-1-85605-402-7 * Innes, Clive & Wall, Bill (1995), Cacti, Succulents and Bromeliads, London: Cassell for the Royal Horticultural Society, ISBN 978-0-304-32076-9 * Jacobsen, Hermann (1960), A Handbook of Succulent Plants (Vols 1â3), Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, ISBN 978-0-7137-0140-1 * Martin, Margaret J. & Chapman, Peter R. (1977), Succulents and their cultivation, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-10221-1 * Rowley, Gordon D. (1980), Name that Succulent, Cheltenham, Glos.: Stanley Thornes, ISBN 978-0-85950-447-8 [edit] External links Look up succulent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. * SucculentCity.org * Drought Smart Plants * Cacti & Succulent Picture Gallery * Cactus and Succulent Field Number Database * Definition of a Succulent * Cactus and Succulent website with plenty of information Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Succulent_plant&oldid=533158 692" Categories: * Plant morphology * Succulent plants Hidden categories: * Articles needing additional references from January 2013 * All articles needing additional references * Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2012 * All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * íêµì´ * Hrvatski * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * ÒазаÒÑа * LatvieÅ¡u * Lietuvių * Magyar * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * SlovenÄina * Suomi * Svenska * à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 15 January 2013 at 05:33. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Or use the following contact options: * Phone: +49 (0) 8808 9345 * Fax: +49 (0) 8808 9346 * Email: info@plant-for-the-planet.org * Huella * Renuncia * Política de Privacidad * Prensa * Contacto * Login * Facebook * Twitter * Google+ * Flickr * Youtube * RSS * E-Mail [site-title.gif] * Home + News Archive * Learn More + Why plants are important + Why plants need our help + You can make a difference * About Plant Conservation Day + Partners * Celebration Stories * Resources for Organizers + For kids and families + For gardeners + Plant conservation tour + Conservation plant sale + Check out these books + Celebration resources Association of Zoological Horticulture Botanic Gardens Conservation International Plant Conservation Day > Learn More > Why plants need our help Why plants need our help bulldozer The world's plant species are facing unprecedented threats to their continued survival, despite the fact that their loss will have significant negative impacts on the humans and wildlife that depend upon them and the ecosystems services they provide. cactus Unfortunately, we know very little about what we are losing or how quickly we are losing it: there are nearly 250,000 angiosperm species currently known, and upwards of 350,000 species predicted (1). The world's plants are greatly underrepresented on the IUCN RedList when compared to other groups (2), but studies indicate that as many as 47% of the world's angiosperm species are now threatened with extinction (3). bg entrance Efforts to halt the loss of plant diversity are ongoing around the world (through local efforts and global efforts that collectively contribute to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation), but this work receives disproportionately less support and funding that equivalent work on animal species [e.g. over half of the listed species in the U.S. are plants, but these species receive only 5% of funding spent on endangered species (4)]. CITATIONS: 1. VAMOSI, J. C., AND J. R. U. WILSON. 2008. Nonrandom extinction leads to elevated loss of angiosperm evolutionary history. Ecology Letters 11: 1047-1053. 2. BRUMMITT, N., S. P. BACHMAN, AND J. MOAT. 2008. Applications of the IUCN Red List: towards a global barometer for plant diversity. Endang Species Res 6: 127-135. 3. PITMAN, N. C. A., AND P. M. JORGENSEN. 2002. Estimating the Size of the World's Threatened Flora. Science 298: 989. 4. KENNEDY, K. L. 2008. The Center for Plant Conservation: Twenty Years of Recovering America's Vanishing Flora, Saving Biological Diversity, 47-58. Contact BGCI - Contact AZH - Translate this page - Legal notices - Accessibility Montana State University in Bozeman Directories A-Z Index Search MSU_____ Search Montana State University Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology PSPP Home * Dept Information * Faculty & Staff + Faculty + Professional and Classified Staff + Contact Information * Undergraduate Program + Crop Science + Plant Biology + Environmental Horticulture Science + Landscape Design + General Biotechnology + Plant Systems + Sustainable Crop Production + Environmental Horticulture Minor * Graduate Program * General Student Info * Facilities * Producers and Farmers * More Information * Bozeman Community * College of Agriculture Dept of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology P.O. Box 173150 Bozeman, MT 59717-3150 Tel: (406) 994-5171 Fax: (406) 994-7600 Location: Plant BioScience Building Dept Head: Dr. John Sherwood CURRENT COURSE FOCUS CURRENT NEWSLETTER CURRENT RESEARCH vimeo wheat video Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology homepage The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology is part of the College of Agriculture at Montana State University in Bozeman. An exciting feature of this department is the diversity of programs in Plant Biology, Crop Science, Plant Pathology, Horticulture, Mycology, Plant Genetics and Entomology. The department offers BS, MS, and Ph.D. degree programs with a current enrollment of 100 undergraduate and 20 graduate students. The department has state-of-the-art laboratory and plant-growth facilities. Student and faculty researchers have access to seven research centers distributed across the state of Montana. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology offers class work for the undergraduate student in either Plant Science or Environmental Horticulture. Plant Science students can select degree options in Crop Science, Plant Biology or Plant Biotechnology. Environmental Horticulture students can select from options in Environmental Horticultural Science or Landscape Design. Graduate students can choose advanced work for a Master of Science degree in either Plant Sciences or Plant Pathology, or a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Plant Sciences with options in either Plant Pathology or Plant Genetics. The department participates in the inter-departmental Entomology Program, offering a Master of Science in Entomology and undergraduate Minor (for more information regarding entomology programs, contact Linda McDonald). An entering graduate student is expected to have a solid background in the basic sciences and a background equivalent to that provided by the undergraduate curriculum at Montana State University-Bozeman in the corresponding area of study. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology at Montana State University-Bozeman offers unique research strengths for graduate students, including 1) the biology, genetics and biochemistry of diseases of small grains, fungal products and the biological control of weeds and pathogens; 2) plant breeding and genetics emphasizing both traditional and molecular approaches; and 3) plant molecular biology and molecular genetics. (c) Montana State University Accessibility Accessibility Admissions Administration Contact List Jobs Legal & Trademarks Privacy Policy Site Index Français Français English English Print this page Save the date Add to your favorites Share Join the group to expand your network ! * News * Keydates * Links * Contacts * Disclaimer * Downloads * Home / Welcome Message * Co-organisers * Committees + Local Organising Committee + Technical Committee * Programme (Sept. 5-6) + Monday, September 5 + Tuesday, September 6 * Speakers guidelines * Technical Visits (Sept. 7) * Congress Dinner * Practical Information * Registration & Accommodation + Registration procedure + Accommodation * Sponsors * Attending companies * Media relations * Post congress page If you wish to be informed on updates about the conference, please submit your email address here: ____________________ Validate INVITATION TO JOIN! Welcome on our website ! Plant-based Chemistry Plant-based Chemistry constitutes a major avenue of progress for the sustainable development of chemistry in Europe. Plant-based chemistry enables us and proves that an alternative really does exist with European rural resources. On the occasion of the International Year of Chemistry, and continuing the event in February 2010 at Brussels (Lighthouses of Sustainability European Concepts for Competitive Bio-Based Chemicals) the main plant-based chemistry players in Europe are organizing an international «Plant-based Chemistry congress” with the focus on the achievements, challenges and opportunities. The meeting will be held in Paris at the Maison de la Chimie from Monday, September 5 to Wednesday, September 7, 2011 and forecasts to welcome 400 participants including academic researchers, industry representatives, policymakers and venture capital providers. The meeting will foster debate and discussions on challenges emerging from the new developments in this field. The first two days of the congress will feature plenary lectures and oral presentations while the third day will consist in technical visits of major French industrial sites such as Roquette and the Lestrem site, ARD and the Pomacle site, Sofiprotéol-Novance in Compiègne, Arkema and Le Cerdato in Serquigny. We look forward to welcoming you to Paris! Co-organisers Supported by Sponsored by Endorsed by * Home / Welcome Message * Contacts MCI FRANCE Aqualuna [allgrain.GIF] [all-in-poll.GIF] [allwind-poll.GIF] What is a Plant? Plants are essential for any ecosystem. They provide all the energy for the ecosystem, because they can get energy directly from sunlight. They use a process called photosynthesis to use energy from the sun to grow and reproduce. They also must get nutrients from the soil. Those nutrients get into the soil when decomposers break down waste and dead materials. Plants require space to grow and reproduce. The size of your ecodome will influence how much space your plants have. All other organisms in the food chain get energy from plants, either by directly eating them as herbivores do, or by eating plant eaters, like carnivores do. Omnivores can get energy either by eating plants directly or by eating herbivores. Likewise, decomposers get energy either from plants or from the animals that eat them. Since all the energy in your ecosystem comes from plants, you'd better have a lot of them. There are several different kinds of plants, and not all animals can eat all kinds of plants. [wind-poll.GIF] Grasses are only edible to herbivores. That is because the plants contain kinds of fiber that many omnivores cannot digest efficiently. Many herbivores have specially adapted stomachs that allow them to digest these plants. [dandelion3.jpg] [redclover.jpg] [grass3.jpg] [Bogmoss.gif] [in-poll.GIF] Fruit-Bearing Plants make fruit. Herbivores and omnivores can both eat fruit or vegetables from plants, however. Fruit and seeds and sometimes vegetables are part of the plant's reproduction, and generally the presence of pollinators will help these fruit-bearing plants survive better and make more fruit. [beans.gif] [potato.jpg] [corn2.jpg] [raspberry.jpg] [grapes.gif] [soybean.jpg] [strawberry.GIF] [grain.GIF] Finally, there are a kind of plants called grains which make seeds that can be eaten by certain kinds of omnivores but not all. Humans and chickens can eat grain seeds. Herbivores can eat the whole plant. [tallgrass.gif] __________________________________________________________________ GO TO: [largeherb.GIF] Herbivores [wind-poll.GIF] Plants [medomni.GIF] Omnivores [bigcarn.GIF] Carnivores [fungus.GIF] Decomposers [pollinator.GIF] Pollinators [dome.gif] Ecodome | skip navigation | | Home | About us | Aims | Contact us | News | Eden Project | New * Events * Feature articles * Plant People * News archive Getting around * Contributors * Stories * Past issues * Facts * Advertising * Join us Additional * Book reviews * Global plant conservation Colombia: From white to green 04.05.10 Plant Talk introduced the Colombian cocaine issue a few weeks ago. Today Colombian's Oscar Cuervo and Nelson Reyes describe how the cocaine industry is ravaging the environment and people in their beloved home country. The Colombian government has launched a campaign to raise awareness among cocaine consumers of the effects that coca crops have on the environment and people. The campaign Shared Responsibility aims to inform people and potential users of the dangers the drugs pose for human health and biodiversity. Colombia is a large country of almost 445,000 square miles and 45 million people. But it's the hugely diverse landscapes and wildlife that makes it so special. The country contains more than 35,000 plant species, an estimated 19% of the world’s bird biodiversity, 10% of fish and 6% of reptiles. Interestingly, Colombia has the second highest magnolia diversity, after China, and the Antioquia region alone contains 16 species (of which two have only recently been described). Because of this diversity and rarity, magnolias were selected as one of the pilot groups for implementation of the Colombian National Strategy for Plant Conservation. Disturbing digital art image of hummingbird taking cocaine. The Gorgeted Puffleg is an endangered hummingbird native to a small region in western Colombia and has become a figurehead of the Shared Responsibility campaign. With ecosystems ranging from the Amazon jungle to the snow peaks, coasts on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and a privileged position between North and South America. Colombia is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world and the sixth largest producer of freshwater. The famous Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson once noted that Biodiversity is to Colombia, what Oil is to Saudi Arabia. This rich natural history includes a vast number of endemic species, many of which are directly threatened by cultivation of coca. New species are constantly being discovered: but some may become extinct before they have even been discovered. It’s well known Colombia is the world's largest cultivator of the coca plant. Less well known is the massive scale of this cultivation. Currently there are 81,000 hectares under production, but in recent years cocaine production in Colombia has dropped by 28%, which may be due to the increased yields of new coca varieties. Unfortunately these illicit crops and the strategies to eradicate them have dramatic effects on the environment such as destruction of ecological niches, loss of unknown genetic potential, trashing of endemic vegetation, substantial increases in carbon dioxide emissions, changes in precipitation patterns and climate, among others. Big chunks of destroyed rainforest can be seen where cocaine is being grown The most obvious symptom of coca production is the very graphic destruction of the tropical rainforest by cutting and subsequent burning. However, there are more subtle impacts including the effect on sources and biodiversity. As a result, the environmental losses far exceed the actual areas of cultivation, and it is estimated that for every hectare of coca two to three hectares of forest have to be destroyed. Scientists estimate 2,100 hectares of forest are destroyed annually in Colombia in the production and eradication of illicit crops and according to estimates the cultivation, production and trafficking of coca in Colombia has caused the destruction of at least 2.4 million hectares of tropical forest over the past 20 years. This deforestation in turn drives soil erosion and a host of other environmental woes. pristine rainforest in Colombia damaged by cocaine production page 1 page 2 > Privacy policy | Cookies policy | Sitemap © the Eden Project, the Eden Project is owned by the Eden Trust registered charity no. 1093070 #zenhabits RSS Feed Finding Peace with Uncertainty How to Wait Less zenhabits : breathe A Guide to Eating a Plant-Based Diet Post written by Leo Babauta. If I could make a single dietary recommendation to people looking to get healthier, it would be to move to a plant-based diet. Eating plants has been the best change I’ve made in my diet — and I’ve made a bunch of them, from intermittent fasting to low-carb experiments to eating 6 meals a day to eating almost all protein to eliminating sugar (all at various times). Plants have made me slimmer, healthier, stronger, more energetic — and have increased my life expectancy (more on all this below). Of course, the diet is simple, but moving away from the Standard American Diet to a plant-based one isn’t always so simple for most people. Changing your diet can be difficult, but in this guide I’ll share a bit about how to change, talk a bit about why, and what you might eat. What’s a Plant-Based Diet? The simple answer, of course, is that you eat plants. You eliminate animals and (eventually) animal products like dairy and eggs. The less simple answer is there is an abundance of plant foods that most people never eat, and eating a plant-based diet means you might widen the variety of foods you eat. For example, some of my favorite foods include: tempeh, seitan, tofu, kale, broccoli, quinoa, ground flaxseeds, ground chia seeds, raw almonds and walnuts, raw almond butter, olive oil, all kinds of berries, figs, avocados, tomatoes, lentils, black beans, spirulina, hemp seeds, nutritional yeast, organic soymilk, sweet potatoes, squash, carrots, apples, peaches, mangoes, pineapple, garlic, red wine, green tea, brown rice, sprouted (flourless) bread, brown rice, steel-cut oats. A “plant-based diet” can be basically another way to say “vegan”, though many people do use the term to mean that you eat almost all plants with some animal products. In this post, I’ll be focusing on veganism, as I believe it’s the ultimate plant-based diet. Why Should I Change? There are a few important reasons to eat plants: 1. Health. The basis of this guide is health, and many people switch to eating plants because they want to lose weight, improve their heart health, stay healthy as they age, improve blood pressure or deal with diabetes. A plant-based diet has been shown to help with all of these things — if you also stay away from the processed foods. A diet of processed flour and sugar and fried foods isn’t healthy even if it’s all plants (more on this below). The healthiest populations in the world are plant based: the Okinawans (traditionally at almost all plants such as sweet potatoes, soybeans, lots of veggies, with a little fish and occasional pork), the Sardinians (beans & veggies, red wine, some cheese, meat only once a week), and the vegan Seventh-Day Adventists in Loma Linda, California who are the longest-living Americans. Eating plants is the best thing you can do to reduce your risk of the leading causes of death. 2. Environment. Honestly, while this is very important to me, it’s probably the least important of the three reasons on this list (for me personally, that is). But it’s huge: the biggest way to reduce your carbon footprint is to stop eating animal products — better than giving up a car (next best) or using less energy in your home or traveling by plane less or recycling or using solar energy or driving an electric car or buying fewer things. The animals we raise for food production use a ton of resources, eat way more plants than we do (which in turn also require resources to be grown), give off huge amounts of planet-warming methane, breathe out a lot of carbon dioxide, and create a lot of pollution. This 2006 United Nations report concludes that “Livestock have a substantial impact on the world’s water, land and biodiversity resources and contribute significantly to climate change. Animal agriculture produces 18 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 equivalents), compared with 13.5 percent from all forms of transportation combined.” And it takes 4,000 to 18,000 gallons of water to make the beef for one hamburger, according to a recent report from the U.S. geological survey. 3. Compassion. For me, this is the most important reason to move away from eating animals. I’ve talked a lot about compassion on this site, but by far the most cruel thing any of us does each day is consume animals (and their products). The cruelty that is perpetuated on these living, feeling, suffering beings on our behalf is enormous and undeniable. If you don’t believe me, watch this video with Sir Paul McCartney or this video about pigs. While I became vegan for health reasons, I stick with it for reasons of compassion — wanting to reduce the suffering of other sentient beings. But … if you don’t do it to avoid pollution, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, stroke, increased death rates, animal cruelty, global warming, deforestation, and higher costs … maybe weight loss would do it. Vegetarians and vegans weigh less on average than meat eaters. That’s even after adjusting for things like fibre, alcohol, smoking … and calorie intake! Half of Americans are obese, but vegans tend to be much less obese (with exceptions of course). That said, just going vegan will not necessarily cause you to lose weight. You could easily eat a lot of sugar, white flour, fake meats and fried foods and gain weight. If you eat whole plant foods, you’re likely to lose weight. Plant foods, for starters, have pretty much no saturated fat, low calories and tons of fiber, while animal foods all have saturated fat, lots of calories and zero fiber. Beating Death: I highly recommend watching this video on uprooting the causes of death using a plant-based diet. It’s a bit long, but well worth the time. How to Change It will be no surprise that I recommend people start small and change slowly. A good plan is to make the change in stages: 1. Slowly cut out meat. This stage is actually several smaller stages. You might try starting with Meatless Mondays and then, over time, expanding to other days of the week. Another common idea is to start by cutting out red meat, and then poultry, then seafood, in gradual stages of a month or even six months. There is no rush — do it at the pace that feels good to you. Another important point is that, as you eliminate meat, don’t just fill it with starches (which don’t have that much nutrition). Try new foods, experiment with ethic recipes, and explore different nutrients as you make these changes. 2. Eliminate eggs. After you cut out red meat and poultry, you’ll be pescatarian (seafood). When you eliminate seafood, you’re vegetarian! If you’re eating eggs and dairy, that’s called a “lacto-ovo” vegetarian. You can then eliminate eggs — and no, they’re not cruelty-free. This is one of the easier stages, in my experience. 3. Cut out dairy. This tends to be harder for most people. Not because of milk (soymilk and almond milk are good alternatives that just take a few days to adjust to) … but because of cheese. I hear a lot of people say, “I can’t give up my cheese!” — and I empathize, as this was a sticking point for me too. It helps that there are better and better cheese alternatives these days (Daiya being a favorite of many). But for me, what made all the difference is not focusing on what I was giving up, but on the good things I could eat! 4. Eat whole, unprocessed foods. This is the phase that I’m in, and I wholly recommend it. You can go straight here if you have no problems changing your diet, but people eating the Standard American Diet will find it difficult, because the foods are very different than what most people eat. For example, most people in the U.S. don’t eat many vegetables, and find them distasteful, especially dark green leafy veggies, which are the best. I now love vegetables, and kale is my best friend. Most people dislike protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, and beans. Most people don’t eat raw nuts — they eat roasted and salted nuts. However, all of this can change over time, which is why I recommend that you move into this slowly. What exactly is this phase? See the next section for details. What to Eat So what do you eat when you’re on a plant-based diet that focuses on whole foods? Lots! A few categories of foods to include regularly: 1. Beans and other protein. This means the regular kinds of beans, like lentils, black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, garbanzo beans, etc. But it can also mean soybeans (edamame), tofu, tempeh, and seitan (protein from wheat, not good for gluten-intolerant people). It can also mean soymilk, soy yogurt, and the like, which are often fortified. Get organic, non-GMO soy. 2. Nuts and seeds. My favorites include raw almonds and walnuts, along with ground flaxseeds and chia seeds, and hemp seed protein powder. Almond milk is also good. And quinoa — it’s like a grain, but really a seed, and full of nutrition. 3. Good fats. Fats aren’t bad for you — you should just look to avoid saturated fats. Luckily, not many plant foods have saturated fats. Plants with good fats include avocados, nuts and seeds mentioned above, olive oil and canola oil. 4. Greens. This is one of the most important and nutritious group of all. Dark, leafy green veggies are awesome, and full of calcium, iron and a ton of vitamins. My favorites: kale, spinach, broccoli, collards. Eat lots of them daily! They also have very few calories, meaning they pack a ton of nutrition in a small caloric package. 5. Other fruits and veggies. Get a variety — I love berries of all kinds, figs, apples, citrus fruits, peaches, mangoes, bananas, pears, bell peppers, garlic, beets, celery, cauliflower … I could go on all day! Get lots of different colors. 6. Good starches. Starches are not bad for you — but ones that have little calories aren’t great. So find starches that give you lots of nutrition. Sweet potatoes, red potatoes, squash, brown rice, sprouted whole wheat, steel-cut oats, among others. 7. Some other healthy stuff. I love red wine, green tea, cinnamon, turmeric, spirulina and nutritional yeast. OK, by now you might be overwhelmed by all of this. How do you put it together? It’s not that hard once you get used to it. Start learning some recipes that combine some of these foods into meals, and over time, you’ll have a few go-to meals that you love that are full of nutrition. Some examples that I like (but don’t limit yourself to these!): * Tofu scramble w/ veggies: some organic high-protein tofu crumbled and stir-fried with olive oil, garlic, diced carrots and tomatoes, spinach and mushrooms, and spiced with tamari, turmeric, sea salt and coarse black pepper. * Steel-cut oats: cook some steel-cut oats, then add ground flaxseeds, raw nuts, berries, cinnamon. * Stir-fry: Here’s my secret … you can make an endless combo of meals by cooking some garlic in olive oil, then cooking some veggies (carrots, bell peppers, mushrooms, etc.) and some protein (tofu, tempeh, seitan, etc.) and some greens (kale, broccoli, spinach, etc.) and some spices (turmeric or coconut milk or tamari & sesame oil, black pepper, salt). * Veggie chili over quinoa: Black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans with olive oil, garlic, onions, tomatoes, bell pepper, diced kale, diced carrots, tomato sauce, chili powder, salt, pepper. Maybe some beer for flavor. Serve over quinoa or brown rice. * One-pot meal: Quinoa, lentils, greens, olive oil, tempeh (or a bunch of other variations). Read Tynan’s post on cooking this all in one pot. * Whole-wheat pasta: Serve with a sauce — some tomato sauce with olive oil, garlic, onions, bell peppers, diced kale and carrots, diced tomatoes, fresh basil, oregano. * Big-ass Salad: Start with a bed of kale & spinach, throw on other veggies such as carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, snow peas, green beans, tomatoes … then some beans, nuts and/or seeds … top with avocado. Mix balsamic vinegar and olive oil, or red wine vinegar and olive oil, sprinkle on the salad. Yum. * Smoothies: Blend some almond or soy milk with frozen berries, greens, ground chia or flaxseeds, hemp or spirulina protein powder. Lots of nutrition in one drink! * Snacks: I often snack on fruits and berries, raw almonds or walnuts, carrots with hummus. * Drinks: I tend to drink water all day, some coffee (without sugar) in the morning, tea in the afternoon, and red wine in the evening. My Food Journal: If you’d like to see my food journal (admittedly not always perfectly healthy), I’ve started one that you can see here. Frequently Asked Questions I’ll add to this section as questions come in, though obviously I can’t answer everything. Q: Isn’t it hard to get protein on a vegan diet? A: Not really, as long as you eat a variety of whole foods, and not a bunch of processed flours and sugars (the white kind that has little nutrition). There is protein in vegetables and grains, and even more in beans, nuts and seeds. I often eat protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, edamame, black beans, lentils, quinoa, soymilk, and raw nuts. Read more here. Q: What about calcium or iron or B12? A: Again, it’s not difficult at all. I’ve calculated the iron and calcium in my diet at various times, and as long as I’m mostly eating whole foods, it’s really easy. Nuts and green veggies are your best friends, but there’s also calcium-fortified soymilk and tofu and the like. Eat some kale, quinoa, raw nuts, various seeds, broccoli, tofu or tempeh … it’s not difficult. Vitamin B12 is a bit more difficult to get from regular plants, as the main source of B12 is usually animal products — including eggs and dairy. But actually, vegans have figured this out, and now if you drink fortified soymilk or almond milk, or use nutritional yeast or a few other good sources like that, you will have no worries. More reading on iron, calcium and B12 for vegans. Q: Isn’t soy bad for you? A: No. That’s a myth. I would stick to organic, non-GMO soy, but actually soy is a very healthy source of protein and other nutrients, and has been eaten by very healthy people for thousands of years. More info here. Q: I follow the Paleo diet and believe this is how humans are meant to eat. A: Well, if you’re eating unprocessed foods and have cut out white flours and sugars and deep-fried foods, you’re probably healthier than the average American. I admire the Paleo crowd that focuses on whole foods and that eats lots of veggies and nuts and seeds, but when it’s just an excuse to eat lots of meat, it’s not as healthy. It’s also not true that hunter-gatherer societies ate mostly meat — the crowd that believes this has made a flawed review of contemporary hunter-gatherers. Most traditional societies eat, and have pretty much always eaten, mostly plants, including lots of starches — respected anthropologists such as Nathanial Dominy, PhD, from Dartmouth College say that the idea of hunter-gatherers eating mostly meat is a myth. Also read this. I’d also warn against low-carb, high-protein diets over the long run — in the short term, you’ll see weight loss, but in the long run they’ve been shown to increase cardiovascular disease (from June 21, 2012 issue of British Medical Journal). Q: It sounds difficult and complicated. A: Actually it’s very simple — you just learn to eat a variety of plants. It does mean learning some new meals, but instead of seeing that as a hardship, think of it as something fun to learn. If you slowly change your eating patterns, it’s not hard at all. Be flexible and don’t be too strict — you’ll find that it’s much easier if you allow yourself an occasional meal with animal products, especially in the first 6-12 months. Q: What about fake meats and cheeses? A: There’s nothing wrong with giving them a try now and then when you’re having a craving for something, but in all honesty you don’t need them. They’re more expensive and less healthy. Basically, they’re convenience foods. Q: What if I’m allergic to soy or gluten or nuts? A: It’s still possible to get all the nutrition you need from a plant-based diets without a specific kind of food (like gluten or soy), from what I understand. More here. Q: It sounds expensive. A: Actually it can be a lot less expensive, if you stay away from the vegan convenience foods (which are fine on occasion). Meat is more expensive than beans or tofu, for example. While fresh, organic veggies can cost a bit, you should get these in your diet even if you eat meat — and in the long run, you’ll save much more on medical bills. Q: There’s no way I’ll give up (eggs, cheese, ice cream, etc.)! A: Well, you don’t have to. If you want to eat mostly plants but also eggs and cheese, that’s much better than eating meat. But there are cheese substitutes you can try, and vegan ice cream, and in the long run, you might find that giving these things up isn’t as difficult as you think. Q: What about eating out at restaurants or social gatherings? A: I’d recommend you take it slowly at first, and eat mostly plants at home, and be more liberal when you eat out, for a little while. You don’t want to make this too difficult on yourself. But actually, once you learn some simple strategies, it’s not that hard to find vegan food in restaurants — some are easier than others, and sites like Happy Cow make it easy to find veg-friendly restaurants in your area. As for eating at friends’ and families’ houses, I’ve learned to offer to bring one or two vegan dishes, and it’s not usually a problem. Q: What if my family and friends don’t support this change? A: It’s best if you don’t start preaching — people don’t like it. This article might seem like a violation of that, but actually I rarely push veganism on this site, and when I do it’s only as a way to show others a healthy and compassionate alternative. Remember that those around you probably don’t know much about veganism, and are likely to react defensively. Take the opportunity, when they bring up the topic, to share what you’re learning, and the concerns you yourself had when you first learned about it. Show them some great vegan food. Share this guide with them. And always be patient. More answers here: Vegan Outreach Q&A, Vegan Nutrition FAQ, Vegan Society FAQ. 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All Rights Reserved [spacer.gif] * About AARS * Press Room * Contact * Search Rose.org_____ go * Home * AARS Winners * Region's Choice * Buying Roses * Growing Roses * Enjoying Roses Home > Growing Roses > Planting Roses * Rose Gardening Regional Growing Guide * Types of Roses * Planting Roses + Selecting a Planting Site + Bare Root Roses + Planting a Container Rose * Caring for Roses * Pruning Roses * Designing with Roses * FAQ * Zone Map * Books * Fragrant Roses Planting Roses Growing beautiful roses begins with proper rose planting techniques and requires neither great rose gardening skills nor experience. The following information describes how to get your new rose plant off to a great start. Simply use a little common sense in your choice of location, follow the steps outlined here and voila - your roses are off to a healthy start. Selecting a Site to Plant your Roses First, choose a sunny area of the garden that gets at least 4 to 5 hours of sun. Do not crowd your rose with other trees and plants. Some roses, such as climbers and shrubs, don't mind company, but most like to mix with other roses or other non-invasive plants. If you're replacing an older rose bush, it is important to remove an 18 cubic inch area of soil and replace it with fresh soil. A newly planted rose doesn't like to grow in the same soil that an older rose bush has been in. Learn more about Selecting a Site When to Plant * Bare Root Roses -An easy and inexpensive option for early season planting. Late winter is the best time plant bare-root roses. Learn more about Bare Root Roses * Container Roses - A container rose already has plenty of leaves and maybe some blooms. Early spring is the best time to set out plants grown in nursery containers (vs. bare-root, packaged plants). Learn more about Container Roses Step-by-Step instructions for Planting Roses 1. If you have a bare root plant, soak it in a bucket of water before planting. For roses that are potted, you can water the pot thoroughly and let it sit until ready to plant. 2. Dig a hole approximately 15 inches deep and 18 inches wide. If planting bare root roses, form a small mound of soil in the center of the planting hole. If you live in a colder area, plant a bit deeper and consult with your local garden center. 3. Add a small handful of bonemeal to the planting hole. Spade in some compost or peatmoss to loosen the soil. Mix the soil you took out of the hole with more compost or peat moss. 4. Remove the rose from the pot. Carefully place in the hole and shovel the extra soil around the new plant. Plant the rose with the crown slightly deeper than the original soil. The crown or bud union should be about 1 inch under the soil 5. Gently firm the rose into its new home and water well. Stand back and watch it grow! 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Click here [box_topleft.gif] [box_topright.gif] EPPO is an intergovernmental organization responsible for European cooperation in plant health. Founded in 1951 by 15 European countries, EPPO now has 50 members, covering almost all countries of the European and Mediterranean region. Its objectives are to protect plants, to develop international strategies against the introduction and spread of dangerous pests and to promote safe and effective control methods. As a Regional Plant Protection Organization, EPPO also participates in global discussions on plant health organized by FAO and the IPPC Secretariat. Finally, EPPO has produced a large number of standards and publications on plant pests, phytosanitary regulations, and plant protection products. more information >> [box_botleft.gif] [box_botright.gif] [box_topleft_c.gif] [box_topright_c.gif] Pour aider nos visiteurs francophones, plusieurs pages de ce site ont ete traduites en franc,ais (suivre les icones [Francesmall.gif] ). Mnogie stranicy nashego vebsajta byli perevedeny na russkij yazyk, chtoby oblegchit' rabotu s nim nashim russkoyazychnym posetitelyam (oboznacheny flazhkom [ru.gif] ) [box_botleft_c.gif] [box_botright_c.gif] Contact us | Links | EPPO Gallery | Follow us [facebook2.jpg] [twitter2.jpg] (c) 2013 EPPO - All Rights Reserved - EPPO Cloud [zendwww1] #prev next Skip Navigation Oxford Journals * Contact Us * My Basket * My Account Molecular Plant * About This Journal * Contact This Journal * Subscriptions * View Current Issue (Volume 6 Issue 1 January 2013) * Archive * Search * Oxford Journals * Life Sciences * Molecular Plant * Volume 5 Issue 6 * Pp. 1167-1169. IFRAME: /resource/htmlfiles/advert.html?p=Top&u=mplant.oxfordjournals.org/conte nt/5/6/1167.extract Nutrient Sensing in Plants 1. Xiaofeng Cui 1. Deputy Editor-in-Chief, Molecular Plant 1. xiaofeng{at}sippe.ac.cn * Accepted September 24, 2012. Higher plants require a number of essential nutrient elements for completing their life cycles. Mineral nutrients are mainly acquired by roots from the rhizosphere and are subsequently distributed to shoots. To cope with nutrient limitations, plants have evolved a set of elaborate responses consisting of sensing mechanisms and signaling processes to perceive and adapt to external nutrient availability. In 2010, Molecular Plant published a special issue focusing on nutrient sensing and signaling in plants (Volume 3, Number 2, 2010). This themed issue was organized by Dr Daniel Schachtman and has been freely accessible since March 2011. Notably, this special issue collected five review and ten research articles from leading scientists in the area of sensing and signaling mechanisms underlying responses to the status of phosphate, potassium, sulfate, and energy. PHOSPHATE Phosphorus (P) is a crucial structural element of many organic molecules such as nucleic acids, ATP, and phospholipids. Although P is abundant in the soil, plants can only absorb its inorganic forms such as phosphate (Pi), which has poor mobility. In Arabidopsis, the root tip is the major site in sensing Pi deficiency. Several Arabidopsis mutants, including pdr2, lpi, and lpr, have been isolated and shown to display altered root growth under Pi starvation. These phenotypic changes are linked to the complex crosstalks between Pi and phytohormone signaling pathways in response to gibberellins, ethylene, auxin, and cytokinins, as well as sugar (Rouached et al., 2010). Plants absorb Pi by Pi transporters (PHT) including Pi/H^+ symporters. Several genes encode Pi transporters required for Pi transport across plasma membrane (PM), and flux into and from chloroplast, mitochondria, and Golgi, respectively. The PHT1 family genes PHT1;1 and PHT1;4 are highly induced by Pi starvation and encode PM high-affinity … [Full Text of this Article] « Previous | Next Article » Table of Contents This Article 1. Mol. Plant (2012) 5 (6): 1167-1169. doi: 10.1093/mp/sss107 First published online: September 30, 2012 1. » Extract 2. Full Text (HTML) 3. Full Text (PDF) 4. All Versions of this Article: 1. sss107v1 2. sss107v2 3. 5/6/1167 most recent Classifications 1. + Editorial Services 1. Alert me when cited 2. Alert me if corrected 3. Find similar articles 4. Similar articles in Web of Science 5. Similar articles in PubMed 6. Add to my archive 7. Download citation 8. Request Permissions Citing Articles 1. Load citing article information 2. Citing articles via CrossRef 3. Citing articles via Scopus 4. Citing articles via Web of Science Google Scholar 1. Articles by Cui, X. PubMed 1. PubMed citation 2. Articles by Cui, X. Related Content 1. Load related web page information Share 1. 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Global Analysis of Direct Targets of Secondary Wall NAC Master Switches in Arabidopsis 2. Fluorescence Intensity Decay Shape Analysis Microscopy (FIDSAM) for Quantitative and Sensitive Live-Cell Imaging: A Novel Technique for Fluorescence Microscopy of Endogenously Expressed Fusion-Proteins 3. Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci Affecting Hemicellulose Characteristics Based on Cell Wall Composition in a Wild and Cultivated Rice Species 4. StructureFunction Relations of Strigolactone Analogues: Activity as Plant Hormones and Plant Interactions 5. Cellulose Synthases and Synthesis in Arabidopsis » View all Most Read articles * Most Cited 1. An Update on Abscisic Acid Signaling in Plants and More ... 2. Plant Cell Wall Matrix Polysaccharide Biosynthesis 3. Chloroplast Proteomics and the Compartmentation of Plastidial Isoprenoid Biosynthetic Pathways 4. Narrowing Down the Targets: Towards Successful Genetic Engineering of Drought-Tolerant Crops 5. 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See Resources Plant Biology Plant Biology The plant group at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory studies fundamental mechanisms in plant development and genetics that impact crop productivity, biodiversity and climate change. Their research uses Arabidopsis, maize and most recently tomato as model systems and expands upon the Nobel prize-winning work done here by Barbara McClintock in the 1940s and 50s. The transposable genetic elements, or "jumping genes," that she discovered are now understood to reprogram the epigenome and are being used at CSHL for functional genomics in Arabidopsis and maize. CSHL has taken part in numerous plant genome sequencing projects including Arabidopsis, rice, sorghum and maize, as well as epigenomic sequencing and profiling. We are part of the iPlant Cyberinfrastructure consortium and the Long Island Biofuels Alliance. The Laboratory owns 12 acres of farmland nearby called Uplands Farm. Here, an expert staff raises maize, tomato and Arabidopsis plants for study. Plant Biology researchers at CSHL: David Jackson - Plant development; stem cell signaling; genomics and imaging Rob Martienssen - Epigenetics; DNA methylation; chromatin and chromosome biology; transposable elements; RNA interference; stem cells; germline specification; plant genomics; plant evolution; aquatic plants Marja Timmermans - Plant development; epigenetic regulation of stem cell fate; pattern formation via small RNAs Zachary Lippman - Plant developmental genetics; mechanisms of phase transitions for flowering time and inflorescence branching; heterosis Doreen Ware - Computational biology; comparative genomics; genome evolution; diversity; gene regulation; plant biology © 2012 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory. All Rights Reserved. [CSHL_logo_footer.png] One Bungtown Road Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 516-367-8800 Contact | Site Map | Directions | Privacy Policy #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Evergreen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about plant types. For other uses, see Evergreen (disambiguation). A Silver Fir shoot showing three successive years of retained leaves. In botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs. Evergreens include: * most species of conifers (e.g., hemlock, blue spruce, red cedar, and white/scots/jack pine) * live oak, holly, and "ancient" gymnosperms such as cycads * most angiosperms from frost-free climates, such as eucalypts and rainforest trees The Latin binomial term sempervirens (literally, "always green") refers to the evergreen nature of the plant, for instance:- Acer sempervirens (a maple) Cupressus sempervirens (a cypress) Lonicera sempervirens (a honeysuckle) Sequoia sempervirens (a sequoia) Ulmus parvifolia 'Sempervirens' (an elm) An additional special case exists in Welwitschia, an African gymnosperm plant that produces only two leaves which grow continuously throughout the plant's life but gradually wear away at the apex. Welwitschia can live for over 1000 years. Leaf persistence in evergreen plants varies from a few months (with new leaves constantly being grown as old ones are shed) to several decades (over thirty years in the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine^[1]). Contents * 1 Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous * 2 Metaphorical use * 3 See also * 4 References [edit] Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous A Southern Live Oak in winter. Deciduous trees shed their leaves usually as an adaptation to a cold or dry season. Evergreen trees do lose leaves, but not all at the same time the way that deciduous trees do. Different trees shed their leaves at different times, so the forest as a whole looks green. Most tropical rainforest plants are considered to be evergreens, replacing their leaves gradually throughout the year as the leaves age and fall, whereas species growing in seasonally arid climates may be either evergreen or deciduous. Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen. In cool temperate climates, fewer plants are evergreen, with a predominance of conifers, as few evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about -30 °C. In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous (e.g. a cold season or dry season), being evergreen is usually an adaptation to low nutrient levels. Deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their leaves. In warmer areas, species such as some pines and cypresses grow on poor soils and disturbed ground. In Rhododendron, a genus with many broadleaf evergreens, several species grow in mature forests but are usually found on highly acidic soil where the nutrients are less available to plants. In taiga or boreal forests, it is too cold for the organic matter in the soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily available to plants, thus favouring evergreens. In temperate climates, evergreens can reinforce their own survival; evergreen leaf and needle litter has a higher carbon-nitrogen ratio than deciduous leaf litter, contributing to a higher soil acidity and lower soil nitrogen content. These conditions favour the growth of more evergreens and make it more difficult for deciduous plants to persist. In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to survive cold and/or drought.^[2]^[3]^[4] Evergreen plants and deciduous plants have almost all the same diseases and pests, but long-term air pollution, ash and toxic substances in the air are more injurious for evergreen plants than deciduous plants (for example spruce Picea abies in European cities). [edit] Metaphorical use Owing to the botanical meaning, the term "evergreen" can refer metaphorically to something that is continuously renewed or is self-renewing. One example of metaphorical use of the expression is the term "Evergreen content" used to describe perennial articles or guides about topics that do not change frequently.^[5] [edit] See also * Conifer * Deciduous * Fir * Hemlock * Pine * Semi-deciduous * Spruce * Little Trees * Hemp [edit] References 1. ^ Ewers, F. W. & Schmid, R. (1981). Longevity of needle fascicles of Pinus longaeva (Bristlecone Pine) and other North American pines. Oecologia 51: 107â115 2. ^ Aerts, R. (1995). The advantages of being evergreen. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10 (10): 402â407. 3. ^ Matyssek, R. (1986) Carbon, water and nitrogen relations in evergreen and deciduous conifers. Tree Physiology 2: 177â187. 4. ^ Sobrado, M. A. (1991) Cost-Benefit Relationships in Deciduous and Evergreen Leaves of Tropical Dry Forest Species. Functional Ecology 5 (5): 608â616. 5. ^ Gomes, Diego. (2011). [1] What is evergreen content Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evergreen&oldid=528770544" Categories: * Plants * Botany Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * à²à²¨à³à²¨à²¡ * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * Bahasa Melayu * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Polski * Português * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * Suomi * Svenska * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * Vèneto * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 19 December 2012 at 08:10. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Science Kids - Fun Science & Technology for Kids! Science for Kids Math for Kids English for Kids _______________________________________________________ Search Science kids home Fun science experiments Cool science games & activities Amazing science facts Science quizzes Science fair projects Science lesson plans and class ideas Science images, photos & pictures Science videos Science topics Free Science Games & Activities for Kids Plant & Animal Differences Game Plant & Animal Differences Learn about the differences between animals & plants by sorting them into different categories. Discover more about mammals, birds, insects & plants with this fun activity for kids. Find out which category living things such as bees, penguins, horses, butterflies, humans, trees and flowers fit into. Work fast as the conveyor belt moves across the screen, quickly put the different plants and animals into the correct boxes. Take up the challenge and enjoy this cool, educational game. [EMBED] Science Kids (c) | Home | About | Topics | Experiments | Games | Facts | Quizzes | Projects | Lessons | Images | Videos | Privacy | Sitemap | Updated: Jan 9, 2013 Wayne's Word Index Noteworthy Plants Trivia Lemnaceae Biology 101 Botany Search Economically Important Plant Families Numbered Plant Familes Are Used On Botany 115 Exam #4 Submission Form See A Numerical List Of All Plant Families Used On This Version Of Exam #4 [pdficon.gif] Click PDF Icon To Read Page In Acrobat Reader. See Text In Arial Font Like In A Book. View Exam Off-Line: Right Click On PDF Icon To Save Target File To Your Computer. Click Here To Download Latest Acrobat Reader. Follow The Instructions For Your Computer. _______________ Find On This Page: Type Word Inside Box; Find Again: Scroll Up, Click In Box & Enter [Try Control-F or EDIT + FIND at top of page] **Note: This Search Box May Not Work With All Web Browsers** CAPTION: Look Up Plant Family Alphabetically A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 1. Aceraceae: Maple Family Back To Alphabet Table Acer spp. Maple [Beautiful hardwoods, lumber and shade trees.] A. saccharum Sugar Maple [From sapwood during early spring; many commercial syrups contain artificial ingredients such as colorings, flavorings and preservatives.] Maple Syrup From The Sugar Maple Tree 2. Actinidiaceae: Actinidia Family Back To Alphabet Table Actinidia chinensis Kiwi or Chinese Gooseberry [Fuzzy green fruit with translucent pale green flesh surrounding narrow ring of tiny black seeds; the flavor suggests a blend of melon, strawberry and banana.] See Delicious, Fresh Kiwi Fruits 3. Agaricaceae and Boletaceae: Mushroom Families Back To Alphabet Table [Also Including The Cantharellaceae, Morchellaceae & Tricholomataceae] Agaricus campestris Field Mushroom (Agaricaceae) A. bisporus Button Mushroom [Common mushroom sold in supermarkets; the portobello mushroom is a variety of this species.] Boletus edulis King Bolete (Boletaceae) Cantharellus cibarius Chanterelle (Cantharellaceae) Morchella esculenta Morel (Morchellaceae) M. elata Black Morel (Morchellaceae) Lentinus edodes Shi-Take Mushroom (Tricholomataceae) Go To The Wayne's Word Fungus Article See A Cluster Of Delicious Fresh Morels See A Delicious King Bolete (Boletus edulis) Mr. Wolffia Overindulging On Boletus edulis See A Basket Of Delicious Fresh Chanterelles Some Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain 4. Agavaceae: Agave Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae Agave atrovirens Pulque Plant [Pulque is the fermented juice from the base of flower stalk; leaves of central cone are removed and the sap is allowed to collect in the cavity; mescal and tequila are distilled pulque; other species of Agave are also used for pulque.] A. sisalina Sisal [Strong fibers from leaves.] Phormium tenax New Zealand Flax [Strong leaf fibers 3 to 7 feet long.] Sansevieria metalaea and other spp. Bowstring Hemp [Strong fiber from leaves; sometimes placed in the Liliaceae.] Cordyline fruticosa Ti Plant [Many uses for fibrous leaves of this Polynesian plant.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers Read About Legendary Hawaiian Ti Plant Amaranthaceae: Amaranth Family Back To Alphabet Table Amaranthus caudatus Jataco or Achita [Edible leaves used as a potherb; nutritious seeds cooked and eaten like cereal grains.] Amaranthus retroflexus Pigweed [Edible leaves and seeds.] A. cruentus, A. powellii, A. hypochondriacus Amaranth [Edible seeds ground into flour; amaranth flour was important South American cereal during pre-Columbian times; grown by the Aztecs and southwest Indians for millennia, the small seeds are rich in lysine and the young leaves are high in calcium and iron.] Red Inflorescence & Seeds Of Amaranth Species 5. Amaryllidaceae: Amaryllis Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae The following plants with edible bulbs are often placed in the lily family but are more correctly members of the Amaryllis Family--Amaryllidaceae: Allium cepa Onion and Shallot [Edible bulbs; including many different varieties.] A. ampeloprasum (A. porrum) Leek [Delicious edible bulb and leaves.] A. sativum Garlic [Edible bulb; valuable seasoning and medicinal herb.] A. schoenoprasum Chives [Leaves used for garnish and herb.] See Fresh Red, White & Yellow Onions Garlic: Seasoning & Medicinal Herb See Bulb And Leaves Of A Fresh Leek 6. Anacardiaceae: Cashew or Sumac Family Back To Alphabet Table Anacardium occidentale Cashew [The cashew "nut" is attached to a swollen, fleshy stalk (pedicel) called the cashew apple; the outer shell of the "nut" contains the allergen urushiol and can cause a dermatitis reaction similar to that of poison oak and poison ivy.] Spondias mombin Hog Plum S. purpurea Red Mombin Harpephyllum caffrum Kaffir Plum Pleiogynium solandri (P. timorense) Burdekin Plum Mangifera indica Mango Pistacia vera Pistachio Nut P. lentiscus Gum Mastic P. chinensis Chinese Pistache Pachycormus discolor Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see elephant trees (Bursera spp.) in Burseraceae.] Gluta renghas Rengas Tree [Tropical Malaysian tree with beautiful heartwood; dangerous to work because of urushiol in resin.] Melanorrhoea usitata Burmese Lacquer Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Semecarpus anacardium India Marking Nut Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Metopium toxiferum and Comocladia dodonaea [Caribbean shrubs that contain urushiol.] Schinus molle Peruvian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] S. terebinthifolius Brazilian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] Toxicodendron vernicifluum Lacquer Tree. [From milky sap which darkens upon oxidation; sap contains urushiol.] Note: Shellac is prepared from a resinous secretion on the twigs of several tree species by an insect, Tachardia lacca or Laccifer lacca. This insect is a member of the order Homoptera along with aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs, and cicadas. Confectioner's glaze (also known as pharmaceutical glaze) is an alcohol based solution of food grade shellac. It extends the shelf life of candies and tablets and protects them from moisture. It also masks the unpleasant odor and taste of certain medicinal tablets and aids in swallowing. Since the shellac coating is insoluble in stomach acids, it is used in time-released pills. T. diversilobum, T. radicans, and T. vernix Poison Oak, Poison Ivy, and Poison Sumac. All are painful experiences to hypersensitive people. Dermatitis reactions can also occur from handling the shells of cashew nuts and from eating mangoes. See Photo Of A Delicious Fresh Mango See Photograph Of Delicious Hog Plums See Photograph Of Colorful Kaffir Plums See Photograph Of Unusual Burdekin Plums See Pistachio Nut--Technically A Drupe See Leaf & Drupes Of Chinese Pistache See Resin Globules From Gum Mastic Tree See A Fabulous Cashew Apple And Nut Pink Peppercorns From Peruvian Pepper Tree Plants Of The Sumac Family (Anacardiaceae) See WAYNE'S WORD Poison Oak Article See The Seed Lac Excretion Of Lac Insect 7. Annonaceae: Custard Apple Family Back To Alphabet Table Annona cherimola Cherimoya A. muricata Soursop A. reticulata Custard Apple A. squamosa Sugar Apple Asimina triloba Papaw Cananga odorata Ylang-Ylang (Ilang-Ilang) [Flowers the are source of cananga oil used in perfumes.] Asimina trilobata Pawpaw [A smaller, pulpy berry of the Annonaceae that grows wild in North America; it comes from a small deciduous tree native to forested regions of the eastern and southestern United States.] See Soursop Growing On A Tree Trunk See A Delicious, Ripe Cherimoya Fruit Delicious, Ripe Sugar Apple On A Tree See The Unusual Flowers Of Ylang-Ylang 8. Apiaceae: Carrot Family (Umbelliferae) Back To Alphabet Table Anethum graveolens Dill Anthriscus cerefolium Chervil Apium graveolens Celery [Edible leaf stalks or petioles.] Carum carvi Caraway Coriandrum sativum Coriander [Seeds used as a tasty seasoning; aromatic leaves (called cilantro) used as garnish and in salsa and guacamole dishes.] Cuminum cyminum Cumin Daucus carota Carrot [Edible taproot; also called Queen Ann's lace when flowering.] Foeniculum vulgare Fennel [Edible petioles; seeds used like anise for licorice flavoring in cady, medicines, perfumes, liquor and soap; true licorice from root of a perennial legume. Pastinaca sativa Parsnip [Edible taproot; similar to the deadly poisonous water hemlock.] Petroselinum crispum Parsley [Leaves used as garnish and possibly to freshen breath after eating.] Pimpinella anisum Anise Note: Two very poisonous species in this family with parsnip-like roots and parsely-like leaves that you do NOT want to use as greens in salads or cooked as vegetables. They typically grow along streams or in wet bottom lands: 1. Cicuta douglasii Water Hemlock [One large taproot in a salad can be fatal to an adult human; causes convulsions.] 2. Conium maculatum Poison Hemlock [The infamous hemlock supposedly used on Socrates; purple dots on stems; can be fatal without convulsions. Herbs & Vegetables Of Carrot Family See Coriander & Cilantro Compared See Leaf Bases & Seeds Of Sweet Fennel See The Large Edible Root Of Parsnip See The Petioles & Root Of Celery See Edible Taproots of Daucus carota See Large Field Of Dill In Montana See Poison Hemlock & Water Hemlock 9. Apocynaceae: Dogbane Family Back To Alphabet Table Carissa grandiflora (C. macrocarpa) Natal Plum Catharanthus roseus Madagascar Periwinkle [Source of the anti-tumor alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine.] Dyera costulata Jelutong [Important Malaysian timber tree; jelutong latex mixed with chicle for chewing gum.] Rauvolfia serpentina Snakeroot [Source of the medical alkaloid reserpine.] See The South African Natal Plum Plants Producing Medical Alkaloids Plants Used For Rubber & Chewing Gum 10. Aquifoliaceae: Holly Family Back To Alphabet Table Ilex species Holly [The bright red berries of several North American species are used for wreaths and colorful decorations at Christmas time.] I. paraguariensis Yerba Mate [A popular tea is brewed from the dried, crushed leaves of this South American holly; in "mate cocido" the leaves are toasted during the drying process; yerba mate contains about 1% caffeine compared with more than 5% for guarana.] I. opaca, I. glabra and I. cassine Holly [North American species in which the dry, roasted leaves are occasionally used for teas.] Yerba Mate Tea Sipped From A Gourd 11. Araceae: Arum Family Back To Alphabet Table Colocasia esculenta Taro and Dasheen [Source of Polynesian dish poi; from starchy subterranean corms; some botanists refer to dasheen as variety antiquorum; cultivated plants with huge leaves called elephant ears.] Monstera deliciosa Monstera or Ceriman [Edible multiple fruit or spadix.] See Taro Corms And Taro Plants See Fruit Of Monstera Deliciosa 12. Araliaceae: Aralia Family Back To Alphabet Table Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius Asian & North American Ginseng. [Medicinal tea from fusiform taproots.] Tetrapanax papyriferus Rice Paper Plant [Paper made from the pith.] Aralia racemosa American Spikenard [Medicinal herb tea from taproot; the taproot of another species called wild sarsaparilla (A. nudicaulis) is sometimes used in rootbeer. ] See The Remarkable Rice Paper Plant Ginseng Root Used For Medicinal Tea See An Aralia Called Wild Sarsaparilla 13. Araucariaceae: Araucaria Family Back To Alphabet Table Agathis australis Kauri Pine [Important New Zealand source of copal resins for varnishes.] A. dammara (A. alba) Amboina Pine [Another source of copal resins from East Indies & Malaysia.] Araucaria columnaris Cook Pine or New Caledonia Pine [Timber tree native to New Caledonia with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] A. heterophylla Norfolk Island Pine [Timber tree with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] Note: Baltic amber is the polymerized resin from ancient coniferous forests dating back about 50 million years. The semiprecious gem called Whitby jet is the carbonized remains of ancient conifer forests dating back about 160 million years. See Bowl Made From The Beautiful Cook Pine Article About Amber: Nature's Transparent Tomb The Black, Semiprecious Gem Known As Jet 14. Arecaceae: Palm Family (Palmae): Back To Alphabet Table Calamus spp. Rattan [From several species of climbing palms.] Calamus (Daemonorops) draco Dragon's Blood [Bright red dye from resinous fruit; dragon's blood dye also obtained from resinous sap of Dracaena draco & D. cinnabari (Dracaenaceae).] Ceroxylon andicola Wax Palm [From trunk.] Copernicia prunifera (C. cerifera) Carnauba Wax Palm [Exudation on leaves.] C. alba Carnaday Wax Palm [Waxy cuticle used as secondary industrial source of wax.] Bactris gasipaes Pejibaye Palm [Small palm with spiny trunk; clusters of small orange fruits common in marketplace of Costa Rica during summer months.] Butia capitata Jelly Palm [A South American palm native to Brazil; fleshy mesocarp of drupes with delicious flavor of apricots.] Hyphaene ventricosa Vegetable Ivory Palm [From hard endosperm.] Jubaea chilensis Chilean Wine Palm [Wine made from fermented sap.] Metroxylon amicarum Ivory Nut Palm Phytelephas aequatorialis Ivory Nut Palm [Hard endosperm used for buttons, chessmen, poker chips, dice, knobs, etc; today largely replaced with plastic polymers.] Phoenix dactylifera Date Palm Elaeis guineensis African Oil Palm [Seeds high in saturated fats.] Serenoa repens Saw Palmetto [Small palm native to Florida Everglades region; berries used as herb to maintain healthy prostate gland.] Areca catechu Betel-Nut Palm [Seeds commonly chewed by people throughout the far eastern region.] Cocos nucifera Coconut. [The nutritious meat or "copra" within the seed is endosperm tissue (coconut milk is liquid endosperm); the "coconut apple" is a spongy, sweet mass of cotyledon tissue inside the seed cavity that dissolves and absorbs the endosperm; the "coir" fibers come from the fibrous husk or mesocarp.] There are 2 main types or varieties of coconuts. The niu kafa types have an elongate, angular fruit, up to 6 inches in diameter, with a small egg-shaped nut surrounded by an unusually thick husk. Niu vai types have a larger more spherical fruit, up to 10 inches in diameter, with a large, spherical nut inside a thin husk. The niu kafa type represents the ancestral, naturally-evolved, wild-type coconut, disseminated by floating. The niu vai type was derived by domestic selection for increased endosperm ("meat" and "milk") and is widely dispersed and cultivated by humans. Both types of fruit can float, but the thicker, angular husk adapts the niu kafa type particularly well to remote atoll conditions where it can be found today. See Noteworthy Plants Vegetable Ivory Article Read About The Ocean Dispersal of Coconuts See The Fruit Of A Coconut Called A Dry Drupe See The Details Of A Sprouting Coconut Fruit The Truth About The Infamous Coconut Pearl See Pejibaye Palm (Peach Palm) In Costa Rica See African Oil Palm & Palm Fruits In Costa Rica See The Saw Palmetto Of S.E. United States See Fleshy Drupes Of South American Jelly Palm See The Betel-Nut Palm & Betel-Nut Necklace See Unpollinated & Pollinated Fruits Of Date Palm See Jubaea chilensis: The Chilean Wine Palm See Remarkable Bay-leaf Thatch Palm In Belize Wax From Leaves Of The Carnauba Wax Palm Wax From Leaves Of The Carnaday Wax Palm 15. Aspergillaceae: Aspergillus Family Back To Alphabet Table Aspergillus oryzae Miso Mold [A very important fungus used in the fermentation of soybeans to make miso paste and in the fermentation of rice to make sake.] Penicillium spp. Blue Bread Molds [Although this genus includes some destructive molds of bread and citrus fruits, it also contains some valuable species, including P. roqueforti and P. camemberti which are responsible for Roquefort and Camembert cheese; vital antibiotic drugs such as penicillin are also produced by species of Penicillium, including P. notatum and P. chrysogenum.] See Economically Important Fungi See Miso Paste Made From Soybeans 16. Asteraceae: Sunflower Family (Compositae) Back To Alphabet Table Anthemis nobilis Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called mayweed (A. cotula) in San Diego County.] Matricaria chamomilla German Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called pineapple weed (M. matricarioides) in San Diego County.] Artemisia dracunculus Tarragon. [Leaves used for seasoning.] A. absinthium Wormwood or Absinthe [Vicent van Gogh (1853-1890) suffered from epilepsy and was treated with digoxin from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea). His famous work, "The Starry Night" contains yellow circles around the stars, which are similar to visual problems described by patients with digoxin toxicity even today. Van Gogh also drank the liqueur absinthe on a regular basis. Absinthe is a green, bitter liqueur primarily flavored with wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), a European herbaceous perennial related to the native sagebrush species (Artemisia) of the western United States. Absinthe also contains thujone, a terpenoid component of many essential oils, including those found in Artemisia and the coniferous genus Thuja. Research has shown that thujone not only fuels creativity, but also that an overdose of the compound causes yellow-tinged vision. Either absinthe or digoxin toxicity may have contributed to van Gogh's increasing use of the color yellow in the last years of his life; or perhaps van Gogh may simply have loved the color yellow.] Carthamus tinctorius Safflower. [Oil from seeds.] Cichorium endivia Endive [Leaves used as garnish and herb.] C. intybus Chicory. [Taproot roasted and ground, used as an adulterant in coffee; a weed in western U.S.] Cynara scolymus Globe Artichoke [Immature flower heads are cooked and eaten; the tender receptacle and "meaty" phyllaries are dipped in butter.] C. cardunculus Cardoon or Thistle Artichokes [Globe artichoke derived from this species and may be only be a variety rather than a separate species; inner leaves and petioles (leaf stalks) are edible; flower heads used for dry flower arrangements.] Echinacea purpurea Echinacea [Herb used to boost immune system.] Helianthus annuus Sunflower [Tasty, nutritious edible seeds produced in large heads; also valuable unsaturated oil from seeds.] H. tuberosus Jerusalem Artichoke [Sunflower with edible tubers similar to small potatoes.] Lactuca sativa Lettuce [Leafy compact head; many varieties, romaine lettuce with more elongate leaves; related to prickly lettuce (L. serriola), a common weedy species in San Diego County.] Parthenium argentatum Guayule [Only important U.S. source of rubber.] Silybum marianum Milk Thistle [A prickly herb used to detoxify the liver.] Tagetes lemmonii Scented Marigold [An aromatic shrub with fragrant foliage used for a tea.] Taraxacum officinale Dandelion [Leaves used in salads and cooked as a vegetable.] Tragopogon porrifolius Salsify or Oyster Plant [Cooked taproot with flavor of oysters; weedy species in western U.S. resemble large, blue-flowered dandelions; cross pollination with yellow-flowered T. dubius resulting in sterile diploid (2n=12) and fertile tetrapolid (2n=24) hybrids; in fertile, blue-flowered tetraploids, all haploid sets (n=6) from each parent have a homologous set of chromosomes to pair up with during synapsis of meiosis I; hence viable gametes and seeds are produced.] Parachute Seeds Of Tragopogon Related To Salsify See Photo Of Rubber-Producing Guayule Plant See Photo Of Jerusalem Artichoke Or Sunchoke Edible Sunflower Seeds & Valuable Sunflower Oil See Edible Flower Heads Of The Globe Artichoke Flower Head & Parachute Seeds Of Thistle Artichoke See Photo Of The Flowers & Leaves Of A Dandelion Chicory: A Dandelion Relative Used In Coffee See The Root Of Japanese Burdock Or Gobo See Photograph Of The Herb Called Echinacea See Photograph Of The Herb Called Milk Thistle See Photograph Of The Herb Called Tarragon Photograph Of The Shrub Called Scented Marigold See Photograph Of The Herb Called Absinthe Sunflower Family: World's Largest Plant Family 17. Bangiaceae: Porphyra Family Back To Alphabet Table Porphyra species. Nori [This genus includes a number of species of intertidal red algae that are collected for food in Asian countries; nori is commonly cultivated in shallow muddy bays of Japan; the dried blades are packaged and sold in Asian markets throughout the world; nori provides the tasty black wrapper around sushi, and is also wrapped around crackers and used in soups.] Bangia fusco-purpurea Cow Hair or Hair Seaweed [An intertidal alga with a slender hairlike thallus; this species is eaten like fine pasta in many Asian dishes.] See Photo Of Porphya & Sheets Of Dried Nori 18. Berberidaceae: Barberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Podophyllum peltatum May Apple or Mandrake. [Podophyllum resin or podophyllin from roots and rhizomes; used as an emetic and cathartic; the antineoplasmic glucoside called podophyllotoxin is used in chemotherapy treatment for certain tumors.] Berberis aquifolium Oregon Grape [The berries of several North American species are used in jams and pies; berries of several Middle Eastern species are dried and used like raisins.] Berberis spp. Barberry. [Alternate host of wheat rust (Puccinia graminis), a serious fungus disease of wheat.] See Oregon Grape & Middle East Dried Barberries 19. Betulaceae: Birch Family Back To Alphabet Table Betula spp. Birch. [Beautiful closed-grain hardwood.] Corylus spp. (C. americana & C. cornuta) Hazelnut or Filbert See The American Filbert Or Hazelnut In Its Leafy Involucre See Noteworthy Plants Article About Filbert-Rubber Tree Hybrid 20. Bignoniaceae: Bignonia Family Back To Alphabet Table Jacaranda mimosifolia Jacaranda Tabebuia serratifolia Trumpet Tree or Pao d' Arco [South American hardwood lumber.] T. impetiginosa Pao d' Arco [Herb from inner bark used for immune stimulant.] Parmentiera edulis Guachilote [An interesting cauliflorous fruit related to the calabash.] See Article About Wind Dispersal in Bignonia Family See Photos of Wind Dispersal In The Bignonia Family See Amazing Cauliflorous Fruits Of Parmentiera edulis 21. Bixaceae: Annatto Family Back To Alphabet Table Bixa orellana Achiote or Annatto [Popular red dye (bixin) used for coloring butter and cheeses; dye derived from seeds of spiny red fruits; also used for body paint by South American Indians; chemically similar to beta carotene and may protect skin from UV light.] See Photos Of Achiote (Annatto) Seeds and Fruits 22. Bombacaceae: Bombax Family Back To Alphabet Table Ceiba pentandra Kapok [Silky hairs from capsule; used for waterproof fillers.] Chorisia speciosa Floss Silk Tree Ochroma pyramidale Balsa. [Specific gravity of only 0.19.] Durio zibethinus Durian [An immense, malodorous, spiny fruit from Malaysia.] Pachira aquatica Guiana Chestnut [Large woody seed capsule with edible seeds.] See The Enormous, Spiny Durian Fruits See Large Fruit Of The Guiana Chestnut Cottony Fibers Of Kapok & Floss Silk Tree See The Tropical American Balsa Tree 23. Boraginaceae: Borage Family Back To Alphabet Table Alkanna tinctoria) Dyer's Bugloss [Roots a source of the deep red phenolic dye alkannin (alkanet) used on textiles, vegetable oils, medicines and wine; commonly used today as a food coloring.] Cordia sebestena Ziricote [This Caribbean tree is also known as cericote and geiger tree; the beautiful, dark wood is used in wood carving.] C. subcordata Kou [A Polynesian species with a beautiful, dark-grained hardwood used in wood carving.] Borago officinalis Borage [Leaves & flowers eaten in salads and brewed into tea.] Echium vulgare Viper's Bugloss [Blue flowers added to salads and cooked like spinach.] E. amoenum Gaozaban [Flowers used for a popular medicinal tea in Iran; a rich source of antioxidants, including rosmarinic acid and bioflavonoids.] See Beautiful Ziricote Wood Carvings Medicinal Teas Made From Borago & Echium 24. Brassicaceae: Mustard Family (Cruciferae) Back To Alphabet Table Armoracia lapathifolia (A. rusticana) Horseradish [Pungent relish obtained from the large taproot; a delicious condiment with meat and seafood.] Eutrema wasabi (Wasabia japonica) Japanese Horeseradish or Wasabi [The fleshy rhizome is the source of the green paste called "wasabi" that is commonly served with sashimi (raw fish) in Japan.] Lepidium meyenii (also L. peruvianum) Maca [A wild mustard native to the Andes of South America; the dried, radishlike roots are cooked to form a sweet, aromatic porridge called mazamorra; powdered maca root is sold as a nutritious herb and food supplement; nineteen species of Lepidium are native and naturalized in California.] Brassica campestris (B. rapa ssp. sylvestris) Field Mustard [A common weed in the western U.S.] B. nigra (Black Mustard) & B. alba (White Mustard) [Seeds used for mustard condiment; black mustard is a common weedy species in San Diego County; mustard gas is a synthetic chemical containing sulfur and chlorine, it is not made from mustard seeds.] B. rapa [Rapifera Group] Turnip [Edible root; sometimes referred to as B. campestris; turnip greens from edible leaves; n=10.] B. rapa [Chinensis Group] Bok Choy (Pak-choi). [Cultivated in Asia for succulent leaves.] B. rapa [Pekinensis Group] Chinese Cabbage B. napus Rapeseed Oil and Canola Oil [Unsaturated oil from seeds; 3rd most important edible oil in U.S. after soybean & cottonseed oils.] B. oleracea [Includes following varieties: cabbage (leafy head), kale (non-heading leafy sprout), collards (nonheading leafy sprout), broccoli (immature inflorescence and stalk or peduncle), cauliflower (immature inflorescence), brussels sprouts (tall-stemmed cabbage with small edible heads or buds along stem), kohlrabi (enlarged, edible, basal stem above the ground); all varieties with n=9 and 2n=18; broccoflower a hybrid between broccoli and cauliflower.] B. napobrassica Rutabaga [Tetraploid hybrid between cabbage (n=9) and turnip (n=10); resulting fertile polyploid with 38 chromosomes, 2 sets of cabbage chromosomes (9 + 9) and 2 sets of turnip chromosomes (10 + 10).] Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (Nasturtium officinale) Water Cress [An aquatic weed in southern California; edible leaves.] Isatis tinctoria Woad [Important blue dye used in Europe during 1500s and 1600s; the glucoside dye indican in leaves; one of dyes used by Robin Hood's men for their green clothing.] Raphanus sativus Radish [A very common weed in San Diego County; edible taproot with many varieties, including white and red radishes; giant oriental radishes 4 feet long and 40 pounds; the large Asian radish called "daikon" belongs to the Longipinnata group of radishes.] Note: The bigeneric hybrid (Raphanobrassica) or Rabbage is a cross between the radish (Raphanus n=9) and cabbage (Brassica n=9). The diploid hybrid has two sets of chromosomes, one set (R) from the radish parent and one set (C) from the cabbage parent. [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Since each set includes 9 chromosomes, the diploid rabbage has a total of 18 chromosomes. The diploid hybrid (RC) is sterile because the radish and cabbage sets of chromosomes are not completely homologous, and fail to pair up during synapsais of meiosis I. A fertile tetraploid (4n=36) hybrid (RRCC) has also been developed. It produces viable gametes and seeds because the radish chromosomes have another radish set to pair up with (RR), and the cabbage chromosomes have another set to pair up with (CC). Unfortunately this wonder plant has the leaves of the radish and the roots of the cabbage. See Brief Discussion About Monounsaturated Canola Oil See Kohlrabi, Broccoflower, Brussels Sprouts, & Rutabaga Bok Choy: A Leafy Mustard Commonly Cultivated In Asia See Massive Taproot Of Wild Radish In San Diego County See The Crispy Red Radish Cultivar Of The Wild Radish See The Large, White Japanese Radish Called Daikon See The Large Taproot Used In Spicy Horseradish Sauce Water Cress: Naturalized Vegetable In Southern California Maca: A South American Lepidium With An Edible Root See Photograph Of A Field Of Woad In Eastern Oregon 25. Bromeliaceae: Pineapple Family Back To Alphabet Table Ananas comosus Pineapple [Also fibers from leaves.] Tillandsia usneoides Spanish Moss [Southeastern U.S.] See Pineapple Plants On The Island Of Kauai 26. Burseraceae: Torchwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Boswellia carteri Frankincense. [Resin obtained from bark.] Commiphora abyssinica Myrrh Protium copal Guatemalan Incense Bursera simaruba Gumbo Limbo B. odorata and B. microphylla Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see another elephant tree (Pachycormus discolor) in Anacardiaceae.] Photos Of Resins And Incenses From Plants 27. Cactaceae: Cactus Family Back To Alphabet Table Opuntia spp. Prickly Pear. [Stem segments edible and called "nopales" in Mexico; ripened fruit called "tuna" or "pitaya dulce."] Opuntia ficus-indica and other spp. Source of the brilliant red cochineal dye [Actual dye from the red body fluids of cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus), a homopteran related to aphids, scale insects and mealy bugs; female cochineal insects are brushed from the cactus pads, dried, and pigments extrated from dried bodies; one pound of dye represents about 70,000 insects; source of carmine red stain used in microbiology classes; cactus were introduced into Australia for this dye with disastrous consequences; by 1925, 60 million acres of valuable range land covered by prickly pear cactus.] Hylocereus undatus Dragon Fruit [Sweet fruit similar in flavor to lime and kiwi fruit.] Lophophora williamsii Peyote. [Source of alkaloid mescaline.] Trichocereus pachanoi San Pedro Cactus [Another South American source of mescaline.] See The WAYNE'S WORD Alkaloid Article See Photos of Peyote and San Pedro Cactus See Photos of Cochineal Insect On A Cactus See Fruit & Edible Stems (Nopales) Of Opuntia See The Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus undatus) Camelliaceaeae: Camellia Family See Theaceae 28. Cannabaceae: Hops Family Back To Alphabet Table Cannabis sativa Indian Hemp or Marijuana [Resinous flowers and buds of female plant used medicinally and for casual smoking; resin contains several phenolic cannabinoids, including THC; important source of bast fibers from male plants; these plants occasionally sprout from seeds in well-watered, rural areas, such as the Palomar College campus.] Humulus lupulus Hop Vine [Female inflorescences (hops) added to beer to clarify the brew, prevent bacterial action and to improve flavor.] Information About THC From The Female Cannabis Indian Hemp As A Source Of Bast Fibers For Textiles See A Hop Vine And The Hops Used To Make Beer 29. Cannaceae: Canna Family Back To Alphabet Table Canna indica Indian Shot [Round, hard, black seeds used in botanical jewelry.] C. edulis Achira [Grown in Andes for starchy, tuberous rhizome.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Indian Shot 30. Capparaceae: Caper Family Back To Alphabet Table Capparis spinosa Capers [Mediterranean shrub with tasty flower buds used for flavorings, relishes and sauces.] See Tasty Flower Buds Called Capers 31. Caprifoliaceae: Honeysuckle Family Back To Alphabet Table Sambucus spp. Elderberry 32. Caricaceae: Papaya Family Back To Alphabet Table Carica papaya Papaya [Delicious cauliflorous fruit planted throughout the tropics.] See Cauliflorous Papaya Fruits See Delicious Ripe Papaya Fruit Celastraceae: Staff-Tree Family Back To Alphabet Table Catha edulis Khat [Tree native to Arabia & South Africa; leaves contain the stimulant alkaloids cathine & cathinone; fresh leaves chewed and used for tea by inhabitants of this region.] See Images Of Khat (Catha edulis) 33. Chenopodiaceae: Goosefoot Family Back To Alphabet Table Beta vulgaris Beets [Other varieties include sugar beets and Swiss chard; sweet taproot used for beets and sugar beets; tender leaves used for Swiss chard.] Chenopodium album Lamb's Quarters [An edible weed in California; tender leaves cooked and eaten like spinach.] C. quinoa Quinoa [South American herb with edible seeds that are cooked and eaten like a cereal grain; used by native people since pre-Columbian times.] Spinacia oleracea Spinach [Leaves consumed through pipe by Popeye; very nourishing vegetable rich in iron and folic acid.] Family also includes Russian thistle or tumbleweed (Salsola tragus) and halophytic salt marsh species, such as pickleweed (Salicornia). See Photo Of Beets & Swiss Chard See Photo Of Fresh Spinach Leaves See Photo Of Fresh Lamb's Quarters See The Grainlike Seeds Of Quinoa 34. Chrysobalanaceae: Chrysobalanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Chrysobalanus icaco Coco Plum [A shrub or small tree native to the American tropics with a sweet, plumlike fruit.] See Photo Of Coco Plum In Belize Clavicipitaceae: Ergot Family Back To Alphabet Table Claviceps purpurea Ergot [A grain fungus infecting rye and related grasses; the source of synthetic LSD and several important vasconstricting alkaloids such as ergotamine.] See The Infamous Ergot Fungus On Rye Grass Clusiaceae: Clusia Family See Guttiferae Combretaceae: Combretum Family Back To Alphabet Table Anogeissus latifolia Gum Ghatti [A natural gum from the sap of a tree native to dry, deciduous forests of India and Sri Lanka; the common name "ghatti" is derived from the word "ghat" or mountain pass; this gum was originally carried by people over mountain passes or "ghats" to ports in India; the gum has properties intermediate between gum arabic and karaya gum; because it is a superior oil emulsifier with a higher viscosity, it is used in liquid and paste waxes and for fat soluble vitamins. Terminalia catappa Tropical Almond [Malaysian tree naturalized along seashores of the Old and New World tropics, including Florida and the Hawaiian Islands; the oval, flattened, one-seeded fruit is commonly dispersed by ocean currents; the seed superficially resembles an almond and is eaten by natives. Compositae: Sunflower Family See Asteraceae 35. Convolvulaceae: Morning Glory Family Back To Alphabet Table Turbina corymbosa and Ipomoea tricolor Ololiuqui [New World morning glories with seeds containing the alkaloid ergine (d-lysergic acid amide), better known as natural LSD.] Ipomoea batatas Sweet Potato [Edible, fascicled storage roots; many delicious varieties, including red "yams" and white sweet potatoes.] Ipomoea aquatica Water Spinach [A popular, aquatic green vegetable in Asian countries.] Note: True yams belong to the genus Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae). See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Morning Glories See Water Spinach: An Edible Aquatic Morning Glory See Noteworthy Plants Article About True Yams See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Alkaloids Cruciferae: Mustard Family See Brassicaceae 36. Cucurbitaceae: Gourd Family Back To Alphabet Table Cucurbita pepo Summer Squash [Many varieties.] C. maxima Winter Squash [Many varieties.] C. moschata Butternut Squash Note: Many pumpkins are varieties of C. pepo; however, the largest pumpkins probably come from C. maxima. C. mixta (C. argyrosperma) Green-Striped Cushaws C. ficifolia Malabar Gourd Sechium edule Chayote Luffa aegyptiaca and L. acutangula Luffa Sponge Cucumis melon Melon [Many fabulous cultivars.] C. sativus Cucumber C. dipsaceus Teasel Gourds C. metuliferus Horned Cucumber Citrullus lanatus var. citroides Citron Melon Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus Watermelon Momordica charantia Bitter Melon Siraitia grosvenorii (Thladiantha grosvenorii) Luo Han Kuo or Buddha's Fruit [A small Asian gourd with an extremely sweet pulp; a glycoside in the fruit is 150 times sweeter than sucrose and may have economic potential as a non-caloric sugar substitute.] Lagenaria siceraria Hard-Shelled Gourds [Many shapes and sizes.] See WAYNE'S WORD Gourd Article See Buddha's Fruit (Luo Han Kuo) Gourd Family Fruits: Squash & Melons Cucumber Pickles & Teasel Gourd See Dried Gourd Strips Use For Food See The Unusual One-Seeded Chayote 37. Cupressaceae: Cypress Family Back To Alphabet Table Juniperus spp. Junipers (e.g. J. communis) [Berries (cones) used to flavor gin; sloe gin flavored with sloe plum (Prunus spinosa).] Cupressus spp. Cypress [10 endemic species in California; distributed throughout the state in arboreal islands; cones, foliage & bark variation in populations due to selection (glandular vs. eglandular foliage) and genetic drift.] Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Port Orford Cedar Calocedrus decurrens Incense Cedar Thuja plicata Western Red Cedar Cupressocyparis leylandii Leyland Cypress [A bigeneric hybrid between Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) and Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). There are other species used for lumber often called cedars. Genetic Variation In California Cypress 38. Cycadaceae: Cycad Family Back To Alphabet Table Cycas revoluta Sago Palm [Seeds eaten fresh and roasted; ground seeds should be thoroughly washed because they contain cycasin, a potent carcinogen; the heart of the trunk is baked and eaten, and is the source of sago, a starchy material also obtained from the central pith of palm trunks; sago starch is used in cooking and baking, like the starchy rhizomes of arrowroot (Marantiaceae) and achira (Cannaceae).] C. circinalis [The large seeds used as in C. revoluta.] Note: Seeds of additional species of cycads are used for food, including the African genus Encephalartos in the family Zamiaceae; in tropical and temperate climates, cycads are used extensively in landscaping. See The Seeds Of Cycas circinalis 39. Cyperaceae: Sedge Family Back To Alphabet Table Cyperus papyrus Papyrus [Fibers used in paper making.] Eleocharis dulcis Water Chestnut [Edible, crunchy corms at base of stem.] 40. Cylanthaceae: Cyclanthus Family Back To Alphabet Table Carludovica palmata Panama Hat Palm. [Leaf fibers used to make famous Panama hats which are made in Ecuador.] See A Panama Hat Palm Growing Wild Davidsoniaceae: Davidson's Plum Family Back To Alphabet Table Davidsonia pruriens Davidson's Plum [A monotypic family containing a single species; the plum-like fruits hang in clusters that arise directly from the trunk (cauliflorous); although acidic, they are edible and make excellent jams and jellies.] See Photo Of The Davidson Plum Dilleniaceae: Dillenia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dillenia indica Chulta or Indian Apple [Fleshy fruit pulp is used in curries, jam and jellies.] See The Fruits & Distinctive Leaves Of Dillenia indica 41. Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea Family Back To Alphabet Table Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayensis Yams [Africa]; D. alata and D. esculenta Yams [Asia]; and D. trifida Yams [New World]. D. elephantipes Hottentot's Bread or Turtleback Plant D. bulbifera Air Potato See World's Largest Vegetable See Yams Named After Dioscorides 42. Dipterocarpaceae: Dipterocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gurjun Balsam Shorea spp. (Incl. S. aptera, S. hypochra, S. robusta & S. wiesneri) Dammars Dammars: East Indian and southeast Asian resins similar to copals. Like copals they are shiny and transparent when dry and are used extensively in the paint and varnish industry. 43. Ebenaceae: Ebony Family Back To Alphabet Table Diospyros ebenum Ebony D. kaki Japanese Persimmon D. digyna Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) D. virginiana Native Persimmon See Delicious, Ripe Persimmon Fruit See Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) See A Chart Of World's Hardwoods See "Elephant" Carved From Ebony 44. Elaeagnaceae: Oleaster Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian Olive [Yellow fruits eaten fresh and made into jellies.] E. philippinensis Lingaro [Pinkish-red, gland-dotted fruits are reportedly eaten in the Philippines.] E. pungens Silverberry [Fruits used for jams, soft drinks and liqueurs in Japan.] See The Unusual Gland-Dotted Fruits Of Lingaro See Variety Of Russian Olive Called Trebizond Date 45. Elaeocarpaceae: Elaeocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeocarpus grandis Blue Marble Tree [The fleshy drupes resemble deep blue marbles. They are reportedly eaten raw in Australia and Fiji. The drupe contains a woody, intricately sculptured endocarp that surrounds several small seeds. The endocarps are often strung into attractive necklaces and leis.] E. ganitrus (E. sphaericus) Rudraksha Bead. [The endocarps are known as "rudraksha beads," and were worn by Shiva worshippers at least since the 11th century.] Rudraksha Beads & Striking Fruits Of Blue Marble Tree Equisetaceae: Horsetail Family Back To Alphabet Table Equisetum arvense Common Horsetail [A tea and capsules made from the dried stems of this and other species are used to maintain a healthy urinary system; the high silicon content is reportedly beneficial for cartilage, ligament and bone repair.] Horsetail Tea For Repair Of Cartilage & Ligaments 46. Ericaceae: Heath Family Back To Alphabet Table Arbutus unedo Strawberry Tree [An interesting European fruit tree related to the madrone tree of Pacific northwestern U.S.] Erica arborea Briarwood [Mediterranean shrub with subterranean basal burl (lignotuber) that is fire-resistant and used for briarwood smoking pipes. ] Gaultheria procumbens Wintergreen [Oil from leaves.] Gaylussacia baccata Huckleberry Vaccinium spp. (V. corymbosum & V. angustifolium) Blueberry V. macrocarpon & V. oxycoccos Cranberry See Smoking Pipe Made From The Burl Of Briarwood See Huckleberry & Bearberry In Rocky Mountains See Hawaiian Huckleberry Near Rim Of Kilauea Crater See Cranberries, An Interesting Shrub Of Acid Bogs Strawberry Tree: An Interesting Fruit From Europe 47. Erythroxylaceae: Coca Family Back To Alphabet Table Erythroxylum coca Coca Shrub [Leaves source of the tropane alkaloid cocaine; not to be confused with the cocoa or cacao tree (Threobroma cacao) in the Sterculiaceae.] Information About The Tropane Alkaloid Cocaine 48. Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia Family Back To Alphabet Table Croton tiglium Croton [Croton oil from seeds; it is one of the most powerful purgatives known.] Aleurites moluccana Candlenut or Kukui Nut [Seeds rich in unsaturated oil; seeds polished and used for necklaces in Hawaii.] A. fordii Tung Oil [Outstanding unsaturated oil that dries fast and leaves a glossy finish on wood.] Sapium sebiferum Chinese Tallow Tree S. biloculare Arizona Jumping Bean Sebastiana pavoniana Mexican Jumping Bean Euphorbia pulcherrima Poinsettia Hippomane mancinella Manchineel Tree [Apple-like fruits poisoned Columbus' crew on his 2nd voyage to Caribbean in 1493.] Hura crepitans Monkey Pistol or Sandbox Tree [Interesting tropical tree with exploding seed capsules.] Cnidoscolus angustidens Mala Mujer [Painful plant with stinging trichomes similar to nettle but much worse!] Euphorbia antisyphilitica Candelilla Wax [From stems.] Hevea brasiliensis Para Rubber Tree [Most important source of natural rubber.] Manihot glaziovii Ceara Rubber Tree [Lesser known New World source of rubber latex.] M. esculenta Cassava [Tapioca from storage roots.] Ricinus communis Castor Bean [Castor oil from seeds; seeds also contain the protein ricin which is more poisonous gram for gram than cyanide or rattlesnake venom; grows wild in the western U.S.] Rubber From Heavea & Manihot glaziovii See Article About The Castor Bean Shrub See Article About Mexican Jumping Beans See Mala Mujer: Plant With Stinging Trichomes Manchineel Fruit That Poisoned Columbus' Crew See The Cassava Plant: Important Root Crop See Tung Oil Tree And Candlenut (Kukui Nuts) See Photos Of Candelilla And Candelilla Wax 49. Fabaceae: Pea Family (Leguminosae) Back To Alphabet Table Legumes containing water soluble gums and natural dyes: Acacia senegal Gum Arabic [From trunk.] Astragalus spp. (incl. A. gummifer) Gum Tragacanth [Spiny "locoweeds" of Near East and Asia Minor; especially Zagros Mountains of Western Iran; valuable white gum in stems.] Astragalus membranaceus Astagalus Root or Huang Ch'i [A Chinese Herbal Remedy For Boosting The Immune System.] Ceratonia siliqua Carob Tree [Pods ground into carob flour; also the source of locust bean gum.] Indigofera tinctoria Indigo [Beautiful blue dye from leaves.] Caesalpinia echinata Brazilwood [Red dye from heartwood; source of the histological stain brazilin; wood also used for violin bows; planted on campus; major factor in colonization of Brazil by Portuguese.] Caesalpinia sappan Sappanwood [Important red dye from heartwood before aniline dyes.] Haematoxylum campechianum Logwood [Valuable red heartwood dye during 1500s & 1600s; major factor in colonization of British Honduras by England which later became Belize; source of the histological stains hematoxylin and hematein.] Pterocarpus santalinus Red Sandalwood [Blood Red Dye From The Wood.] True gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), gum arabic from Acacia senegal, gum tragacanth from Astragalus gummifera, and algin from the giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), are complex polysaccharides (made of many sugar molecules joined together) and are used as emulsifiers and thickening agents. See The Carob Tree: A Cauliflorous Species See Photos Of Logwood Tree In Central America See Photo Of Brazilwood And Its Bright Red Dye Powdered Red Sandalwood: A Bright Red Dye Photos And Information About Gum Tragacanth Astragalus Root: Popular Chinese Herbal Remedy Inga edulis Ice Cream Bean Dipteryx odorata Tonka Bean [Seeds from the egg-shaped fruits of this tropical South American tree are used as a substitute for vanilla; the seeds contain the fragrant phenolic compound coumarin which is used in the perfume industry.] Glycyrrhiza glabra Licorice [From roots.] Pachyrhizus erosus Jicama [From large taproot.] Tamarindus indicus Tamarind Medicago sativa Alfalfa Trifolium pratense and T. repens Red and White Clover Melilotus albus, M. indicus and M officinalis White, Indian and Yellow Sweet Clover [Wet or moldy sweet clover contains the anticoagulant compound dicoumarin (a double phenolic ring); dicoumarin is used in rat poison; it is formed by the union of 2 single-ring coumarin molecules; coumarin is found in fresh clover & alfalfa and produces the aroma of new mown hay.] See Tonka Beans: A Source Of Fragrant Coumarin See The Legume Fruits Of The Tamarind Tree See The Tropical American Ice Cream Bean Many species in the legume family have edible seeds (beans) and pods. The following is only a partial list of the many species, some with dozens of cultivated varieties: Phaseolus lunatus (P. limensis) Lima Bean P. vulgaris Common Bean & Kidney Bean P. coccineus Red Runner Bean Faba vulgaris Fava Bean (Broad Bean) Glycine max (G. hispida) Soybean Lens culinaris (Lens esculenta) Lentil Pisum sativum Pea Vicia faba Broad Bean Cajanus cajan Pigeon Pea [Common vegetable seen in Caribbean marketplace.] Cicer arietinum Chick Pea (Garbanzo Bean) Vigna unguiculata Black-Eyed Pea (Cowpea, Southern Pea) V. angularis Chinese Red Bean (Azuki Bean) V. umbellata Rice Bean (Red Bean) V. radiata Mung Bean Canavalia gladiata Sword Bean C. ensiformis Jack Bean Arachis hypogaea Peanut See The Red Runner Bean Of Central America An Assortment Of Nineteen Varieties Of Beans See String Bean, Sugar Snap Pea & Snow Pea Fresh Green Pods Of The Popular Fava Bean Garbanza Bean (Chick Pea) And Mung Beans See Pods & Seeds Of The Soy Bean See Large Pod & Seeds Of The Sword Bean A Subterranean Peanut Out Of The Ground See More Photos Of The Peanut Plant Note: There are many tropical leguminous genera with beautiful seeds used for necklaces and bracelets, including Mucuna, Dioclea, Entada, Abrus, Rhynchosia, Erythrina, Adenanthera, Sophora and Ormosia. One example of a decorative bean is the circassian seed (Adenanthera pavonina), a magical bean from India that is commonly used in seed necklaces. See the Wayne's Word article about seed jewelry for more information and photos. See Article About Magical Beans From India See Wayne's Word Article About Seed Jewelry Copal Resins and Balsams [Balsams are highly aromatic oleoresins.]: Copaifera demeussei South African Copaifera Balsam C. reticulata& C. officinalis Central & South American Copaifera Balsams Myroxylon balsamum Balsum-of-Peru [Used in medicines, soaps and perfumes; gathered in Central America (El Salvador) by "balsameros."] Prioria copaifera Copaiba Balsam from Central America Hymenaea courbaril West Indian Locust [Source of copal varnish & incense.] Hymenaea verrucosum East African Copal See Noteworthy Plants Article About Prioria copaifera See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Resins and Amber 50. Fagaceae: Beech Family Back To Alphabet Table Castanea dentata Chestnut C. sativa European Chestnut Fagus grandiflora Beech Lithocarpus densiflora Tanbark Oak [Bark good source of tannin; tannins unite with certain proteins, such as those in animal skins, to form a strong, flexible, resistant, insoluble substance known as leather; i.e. tannins convert animal hides into leather.] Quercus spp. Oak [Beautiful open-grain, ring porous hardwood.] Quercus suber Cork Oak [Cork obtained from thick, outer bark; planted on Palomar College campus.] See Chestnuts Inside Their Spiny Involucre See The Mature Acorns Of The Cork Oak See Article About Wood Products And Cork Flacourtiaceae: Flacourtia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dovyalis abyssinica Abyssinian Gooseberry D. caffra Kei Apple or Umkokolo D. hebecarpa Ceylon Gooseberry or Ketembilla [Note: The Florida gooseberry or tropical apricot is an artificial hybrid between D. abyssinica and D. hebecarpa.] Flacourtia cataphracta Runealma Plum F. indica Madagascar Plum or Ramontchi F. inermis Martinique Plum or Lovi-Lovi F. rukam Rukam or Indian Prune Pangium edule Buah Keluak or Kepayang [Also known as the kepayang tree of Indonesia & Malaysia; oily, hard-shelled seeds superficially resemble Brazil nuts; meaty seeds are edible after poisonous hydrocyanic acid is removed by soaking and boiling them in water; fermented seeds (called kluwak nuts) become chocolate-brown, greasy and slippery; cooked seeds are used in a number of Malaysian and Indonesian dishes.] See Photo Of Peeled & Packaged Kluwak Nuts 51. Gelidiaceae & Gracilariaceae: Agar Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Gelidium cartilagineum (and other species) Gelidium [An intertidal red alga used for agar.] Gracilaria spp. Gracilaria [Another intertidal red alga used for agar.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Agar is a phycocolloid obtained from several genera of red algae, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. Agar gels have a superior capacity for changing into a liquid when heated, and then readily cooling back into a gel. They are unsurpassed for nutrient media used for tissue culture and in bacteriology (microbiology). See Photo Of Gelidium pulcrum 52. Gigartinaceae: Gigartina Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This is a family of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Chondrus crispus Irish Moss [An intertidal red alga species used for carrageenan.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus). Agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. See Photo Of Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus) Gramineae: Grass Family See Poaceae Grossulariaceae: Gooseberry Family See Saxifragaceae 53. Guttiferae (Clusiaceae): Garcinia Family Back To Alphabet Table Mammea americana Mammee Apple Clusia rosea Pitch Apple [Interesting strangler tree resembling a strangler fig.] Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen [Considered the "queen of tropical fruits."] Garcinia dulcis [Fruit similar to mangosteen, except the fleshy fruit has a yellow interior.] Garcinia hanburyi & G. morella [A yellow dye called gamboge is obtained from the resin.] See A Mammee Apple From Island Of St. John See The Mangosteen: Queen Of Tropical Fruits A Tasty Mangosteen Relative: Garcinia dulcis See Clusia Rosea: A Strangler That Is Not A Fig 54. Hamamelidaceae: Witch Hazel Family Back To Alphabet Table Hamamelis virginiana Witch Hazel [Witch hazel oil, outstanding treatment for hemorrhoids.] Liquidambar styraciflua Sweet Gum See Foliage & Seed Capsules Of Witch Hazel Hydrophyllaceae: Waterleaf Family Back To Alphabet Table Eriodictyon californicum Yerba Santa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; leaves made into a tea and poultice to relieve colds, bronchitis, rheumatism and muscular aches & pains.] See Yerba Santa In San Diego County 55. Hypericaceae: St. John's-Wort Family Back To Alphabet Table Hypericum perforatum St. John's-wort [Flowers used as herb to treat symtoms of mild depression and mood swings; a European wildflower that is naturalized throughout North America; there are also native species of Hypericum in North America, including two species in San Diego County, California.] St. John's-Wort: An Herb To Treat Depression Illiciaceae: Star Anise Family Back To Alphabet Table Illicium verum Star Anise [A tree native to southeast Asia and grown commercially in China for its aromatic seeds and fruits; licorice flavor used in Asian cuisine and in medicines; primary ingredient of Tamiflu used to treat the dreaded avian flu of humans .] See The Unusual Fruits Of Star Anise 56. Iridaceae: Iris Family Back To Alphabet Table Crocus sativus Saffron. [Yellowish-orange dye from elongate stigmas and tips of styles; saffron contains the glycoside crocin (derived from the diterpene crocetin); 4,000 stigmas yields one ounce of dye.] See Saffron: Ground Up Autumn Crocus Stigmas 57. Juglandaceae: Walnut Family Back To Alphabet Table Juglans cinerea Butternut J. nigra Black Walnut J. regia English Walnut Carya illinoensis Pecan C. ovata Shagbark Hickory Note: The "hican" is a hybrid resulting from a cross between the pecan (Carya illinoensis) and the shagbark hickory (C. ovata). Go To Nut Photos And See Pecans In Their Husks See The Black Walnut And A Related Tiny Walnut 58. Krameriaceae: Krameria Family Back To Alphabet Table Krameria grayi and K. parvifolia Krameria [Intricately branched, thorny shrubs of the Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico; partially parasitic on roots of adjacent shrubs; spiny fruits are a tenacious hitchhiker.] See Tenacious Hitchhikers Of The Colorado Desert Labiatae: Mint Family See Lamiaceae 59. Lactobacillaceae: Lactobacillus Family Back To Alphabet Table [Also The Streptococcaceae, Propionibacteriaceae & Acetobacteraceae.] Lactobacillus acidophilus Acidophilus Milk Bacteria [This bacteria converts lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid, thus making it more digestible to lactose intolerant people.] L. bulgaricus Yogurt Bacteria [A bacteria used in most yogurt and some cheese cultures; L. delbrueckii is also listed for yogurt.] L. casei Cheese Bacteria [Promote the formation of cheese due to their action on milk protein (casein).] L. plantarum Pickle Bacteria. [A lactic acid bacteria used in vegetable fermentations to produce pickles and fermented cabbage called sauerkraut.] Streptococcus thermophilus in the Streptococcaceae is another yogurt-forming bacteria. Streptococcus species are also used in the production of sour cream, butter, buttermilk and cheese. The propionic acid which produces the odor and flavor of Swiss cheese comes from Propionibacterium freudenreichii ssp. shermanii of the Propionibacteriaceae. The unique flavor and odor of limburger cheese is produced by Brevibacterium linens of the Brevibacteriaceae. And the acetic acid of vinegar is produced by vinegar bacteria (Acetobacter aceti) of the Acetobacteraceae. 60. Lamiaceae: Mint Family (Labiatae) Back To Alphabet Table Lavandula officinalis (L. angustifolia ssp. angustifolia) Lavender Marrubium vulgare Horehound [Common in local hills near Palomar College.] Melissa officinalis Balm or Lemon Balm [Leaves used as a flavoring for salads, soups and tea.] Mentha piperita Peppermint M. spicata Spearmint [Wild along San Luis Rey River Of San Diego County.] Monarda didyma Bee Balm or Bergamot [Dried leaves and flowers used to make an aromatic tea; other species also used, including M. citriodora (lemon bee balm or lemon bergamot) and M. austromontana (Mexican bergamot); Note: The bergamot used in Earl Gray tea comes from Citrus bergamia (Rutaceae).] Nepeta cataria Catnip Origanum vulgare Oregano O. majorana Marjoram Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary [Planted on campus.] Salvia officinalis Sage [Also S. clevelandii in San Diego County.] S. columbariae Chia [Common in local hills.] Thymus vulgaris Thyme Ocimum basilicum Basil Satureja hortensis Savory Mesona chinensis Jellywort [Plants are boiled in water and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] See The Delicious Cooking Herb Called Rosemary See Photographs Of Sages (Salvia) In California Lavender: Source Of Lavender Oil For Perfumes Catnip: An Interesting Herb That Drives Cats Crazy Lemon Balm: A Fragrant Herb Used As A Flavoring Basil: A Fragrant Herb That Enhances Tomatoes Horehound: An Herb Used To Make A Unique Candy See Grass Jelly From Jellywort (Mesona chinensis) 61. Laminariaceae & Lessoniaceae: Kelp Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of brown algae in the Division Phaeophyta: Macrocystis pyrifera Giant Kelp [A large kelp or seaweed growing in the kelp beds just beyond the surf zone along the coast of southern California; the large stipes and blades of this species are harvested by kelp cutters and are an important source of algin.] Laminaria spp. Kelp. [Another species of brown alga that commonly grows in the intertidal zone. This species is harvested for food and algin.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Alginates (also called algin) are obtained from species of Laminaria and another macroscopic brown algae called giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) that grows along the coast of southern California. In some fast food restaurants, shakes without the word "milk" were thickened with algin. For this reason they were called shakes rather than milk shakes. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), and agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Note: some species of brown algae kelp or seaweed are cooked and used for soups in Japan. Pelagophycus: A Giant Kelp Off The Coast Of San Diego See Giant Bladder Kelp: The Primary Source Of Algin See Dried Kelp (Laminaria) Used For Food In Japan 62. Lauraceae: Laurel Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinnamomum camphora Camphor Tree [Camphor oil from wood, twigs & leaves.] C. zeylanicum Cinnamon [From bark.] Laurus nobilis Sweet Bay Persea americana Avocado or Alligator Pear Sassafras albidum Sassafras [Spicy root bark used in teas, medicines and carbonated beverages, including some recipes for root beer; one of the primary flavorings of old-fashioned root beer is sarsaparilla from the roots of Smilax officinalis, a member of the lily family; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings.] Umbellularia californica California Bay Tree or Oregon Myrtle See Leaves & Fruit Of California Bay Tree See The Trunk Of A large Cinnamon Tree Branches & Products From Camphor Tree See The Autumn Foliage Of Sassafras Tree See Delicious Fruits Of The Avocado Tree Lecanoraceae & Umbilicariaceae: Edible Rock Lichens Back To Alphabet Table Lecanora esculenta Schirsad [Also thought to be the Biblical "mana" by some scholars.] Umbilicaria phaea Rock Tripe [Several species from the northern latitudes are eaten.] Rock lichens have played an important role in the survival of native people and explorers. In addition to providing food for their animals, Indians, Eskimos and Laplanders eat certain lichens. Leafy lichens called rock tripes (Umbilicaria) are eaten raw and are boiled into a thick, mucilaginous soup. Rock tripes are also added to salads or deep fried, and are considered a delicacy in Japan. Throughout history, peasants of Persia have avoided mass starvation by eating the abundant crustose rock lichen Lecanora esculenta. This lichen readily becomes detached in small patches and is blown off the rocks by wind, often accumulating in crevices and under shrubs. It is mixed with meal and made into a kind of bread called "schirsad" in Turkey and northern Iran. In fact, some biblical scholars think this lichen may have been the "manna" which saved the starving Israelites during their exodus from Egypt. Another source of manna in the arid Middle East desert is the dried sap exudate from several species of trees and shrubs inhabiting this region. Rock Tripes Growing On Granite Boulder Crustose Rock Lichens & Desert Varnish 63. Lecythidaceae: Lecythis Family Back To Alphabet Table Bertholletia excelsa Brazil Nut [A giant tree of the Amazon rain forest in South America; the hard brown seeds are produced in large, thick-walled capsules weighing up to 5 pounds; seeds contain 65% to 70% unsaturated fat and literally burn like a candle.] Lecythis ollaria Paradise Nut [Another giant rain forest tree with seeds produced in a thick, woody, potlike capsule.] Couroupita guianensis Cannonball Tree [Large, fragrant, bat-pollinated blossoms develop on woody stalks that push out of the main trunk; the flowers give rise to cannonball-like fruits up to 8 inches in diameter that remain attached to the tangled flower stalks.] See Photos Of Brazil Nuts & Their Pod See Photo Of The Amazing Paradise Nut See Photo Of Remarkable Cannonball Tree Leguminosae: Pea Family See Fabaceae 64. Lemnaceae: Duckweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Lemna spp. Duckweed [Used for waste water treatment; also food for livestock and fish (aquaculture); important organisms in freshwater ecosystems.] Wolffia spp. Watermeal [Potential high protein food source for people; does not contain calcium oxalate crystals as in Lemna; W. globosa is khai-nam (water-eggs) of Thailand, eaten by people as high protein supplement to their diet.] See Mr. Wolffia's On-Line Lemnaceae Home Page Lichen Dyes and Perfumes See Roccellaceae 65. Liliaceae: Lily Family Back To Alphabet Table Aloe vera (A. barbadensis) Aloe [Gelatinous glycoside called aloin from succulent leaves used in soothing lotions, hemorrhoidal salves and shampoos.] Asparagus officinalis Asparagus [Delicious, edible sprouting stems; stems contain methyl mercaptans which cause significant odor in urine when broken down by some people; genus also includes the asparagus "ferns" used in landscaping.] Chlorogalum pomeridianum Soap Plant [In local hills.] Colchicum autumnale Autumn Crocus [Alkaloid colchicine from the bulblike corms.] Smilax officinalis and other tropical American species. Sarsaparilla. [Flavoring from dried roots widely used in carbonated beverages and medicines; along with wintergreen (and sometimes ginger) this was the primary flavoring used in the original recipes for old-fashioned root beer; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings; several species of this trailing perennial herb are native throughout North America.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Soap Lilies See Garden Asparagus Plants Growing On Maui See Autumn Crocus: The Source Of Colchicine See An African Species Of Aloe (A. kedongensis) 66. Linaceae: Flax Family Back To Alphabet Table Linum usitatissimum Flax [Valuable stem fibers (bast fibers) used for linen; also source of linseed oil from seeds.] See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 67. Loganiaceae: Logania Family Back To Alphabet Table Buddleia davidii Butterfly Bush [Species of Buddleia are commonly grown as ornamentals for their showy clusters of blue and purple flowers; the fragrant flowers attract a variety of colorful adult butterflies.] Fagraea berteroana [Native tree in Australia and Pacific Islands; Fragrant flowers used in perfumes and leis.] Strychnos nux-vomica Strychnine Tree [Alkaloid strychnine from seeds.] S. toxifera [One of the species containing a form of the alkaloid curarine which is used as an arrow poison.] Note: Curare also obtained from bark and stems of Chondrodendron tomentosum (Menispermaceae). This is the source of curare for the Botany 115 Plant Family Exam #4. See Article About The Beautiful Butterfy Bush See Leaves and Fruit of Fagraea berteroana 68. Malpighiaceae: Malpighigia Family Back To Alphabet Table Malpighia glabra Barbados Cherry [Bright red, cherry-like fruits often seen at Caribbean marketplace.] 69. Malvaceae: Mallow Family Back To Alphabet Table Gossypium spp. Cotton [Epidermal hairs on seeds; different varieties have different lengths of hairs or staple; fruit called a boll; also cottonseed oil; although called a fiber, cotton is not derived from fiber cells; the two primary old world species are the diploids G. arboreum and G. herbaceum while the main domesticated New World species are the tetraploids G. barbadense and G. hirsutum.] Hibiscus cannabinus Kenaf or Gambo Hemp [Yields stem fibers 5 to 10 ft. long.] H. tiliaceus Beach Hibiscus [Useful source of bast fibers for cordage.] H. esculentus (Abelmoschus esculentus) Okra [This vegetable is actually a fruit.] H. sabdariffa Sorrel and Roselle [Reddish capsules harvested at Christmas time in Dominica for a popular drink; roselle fibers similar to kenaf.] Malva sylvestris & possibly M. pseudolavatera High Mallow [The tender young leaves are eaten in salads and cooked like spinach; the purple flowers yield a natural coloring for drinks and herbal teas; the common weed called cheeseweed (M. parviflora) is also cooked and eaten as a vegetable.] Thespesia populnea Milo or Beach Hibiscus [Beautiful dark wood used for carvings and bowls.] See A Cotton Boll--Source Of Cotton Fibers See Beach Hibiscus Used For Its Bast Fibers See A Sorrel Plant In Full Bloom See Sorrel At Marketplace In Dominica See Milo: A Beautiful Polynesian Hardwood See Okra: A Vegetable That Is Also A Fruit See High Mallow (Malva pseudolavatera) 70. Marantiaceae: Arrowroot Family Back To Alphabet Table Maranta arundinacea West Indian Arrowroot [Starchy rhizomes used for food.] Powdered Caribbean Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) See Article About Another Arrowroot (Canna edulis) 71. Martyniaceae: Martynia Family Back To Alphabet Table Proboscidea parviflora and other spp. Devil's Claws [Seed capsules used for food and in North American Indian basketry.] See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Devil's Claws 72. Meliaceae: Mahogany Family Back To Alphabet Table Azadirachta india Neem Tree [Oil from seeds used in soaps, shampoos, skin care; leaves used in Indian foods.] Melia azedarach Chinaberry Tree [Commonly cultivated in southern California.] Swietenia macrophylla Honduras Mahogany S. mahogani West Indian Mahogany [Found in Florida Keys.] Sandoricum koetjape Santol or Kechapi [Malaysian tree with yellowish or reddish-brown, juicy fruits that smell like ripe peaches.] See Photo Of The Seldom-Seen Fruit Of Sandoricum koetjape 73. Menispermaceae: Moonseed Family Back To Alphabet Table Chondodendron tomentosum Curare [A deadly extract from the bark and stems of this Amazonian vine is used to coat the darts of blowguns.] Note: Extracts from species of Strychnos, including S. toxifera of the logania family (Loganiaceae), are also used for curare. Another potent alkaloid used to coat the darts of South American blowguns comes from the skin of poison dart frogs of the family Dendrobatidae. See The Amazonian Curare Vine See Colorful Poison Dart Frogs 74. Moraceae: Mulberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Artocarpus altilis (A. communis) Breadfruit A. heterophyllus Jackfruit Castilla elastica Panama Rubber Ficus carica Edible Fig [Hundreds of cultivated varieties, some requiring a pollinator wasp (incl. 'Smyrna' & 'Calimyrna') and some which are parthenocarpic, incl 'Mission' and 'Kadota'.] Ficus pumila Creeping Fig [Juice from the syconia is cooked and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] F. elastica India Rubber Tree F. religiosa [One of the trees inhabited by lac insect that produces shellac.] Broussonetia papyrifera Paper Mulberry [In Palomar College Arboretum; the bark is also used for tapa cloth.] Brosimum utile & B. alicastrum Milk Tree or Palo de Vaca [In Costa Rica, the milky sap is used by locals as a substitute for cream in their coffee.] Maclura pomifera Osage Orange [Hardest of all native hardwoods of eastern U.S.] Morus spp. Mulberry [Some with edible fruits including the black mulberry (M. nigra); M. alba primary food for silkworm.] Native to the Indo-Malaysian region, the jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is grown throughout the tropics for its pulpy, edible fruits which may reach nearly 3 feet (1 m) in length and weigh up to 75 pounds (34 kg). Jackfruit and its close relative, breadfruit (A. altilis), belong to the diverse Mulberry Family (Moraceae). You have probably heard of the story of Captain Bligh, who tried to bring a load of breadfruit cuttings from Tahiti to the Caribbean in 1789 aboard the H.M.S. Bounty. Enchanted with the Tahitian way of life, his crew mutinied on the voyage. See Photo Of An Amazing Breadfruit Tree In Tahiti See Photo Of An Amazing Jackfruit Tree In Hawaii See Comparison Photo Of A Breadfruit And A Jackfruit See Photo Of The Remarkable Fruit Of Osage Orange See Photograph Of The Very Delicious Black Mulberry Flowers & Multiple Fruit Of The Pakistan Mulberry Silk From A Caterpillar That Eats Mulberry Leaves Photograph Of The Milk Tree (Brosimum) In Costa Rica The Creeping Fig--One Of The Sources Of Grass Jelly Read About Delicious, Wasp-Pollinated Calimyrna Figs Photo Of Seed Lac: Resinous Excretion Of Lac Insect Moringaceae: Moringa Family Back To Alphabet Table Moringa oleifera (M. pterygosperma) Horseradish Tree [This tree is called "malungay" in Asian countries; a small, soft-wooded tree native to India but widely cultivated throughout the tropics; the long beanlike pods are used in soups and curries, and are made into pickles; the young, tender, mustard-favored leaves are eaten raw in salads, cooked as potherbs and placed in soups and curries; even the oily seeds are roasted or fried and apparently taste like peanuts; the pungent root is used as a substitute for the true horseradish of the mustard family or Brassicaceae.] See Two Trees Related To The Horseradish Tree 75. Musaceae: Banana Family Back To Alphabet Table Musa x paradisiaca (M. sapientum) Common Banana [A triploid, seedless hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.] M. acuminata Plantain M. textilis Manila hemp or Abaca [Important leaf fiber; source of manilla rope.] Genetics Of Triploid Seedless Banana See Article About Plant Textile Fibers See Photo Of The Manila Hemp Plant 76. Myristicaceae: Nutmeg Family Back To Alphabet Table Myristica fragrans Nutmeg [Large seed is the nutmeg of commerce; reddish outer layer called aril is the source of the spice known as mace.] See Nutmeg Fruit: The Source Of Two Spices 77. Myrtaceae: Myrtle Family Back To Alphabet Table Eucalyptus camaldulensis Red Gum [Source of gum kino, a phenolic compound.] E. globulus Blue Gum [Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) from leaves.] Pimenta dioica Allspice or Pimento [From dried unripe fruits.] Pimenta racemosa Bay Rum Tree [Essential oil from leaves used in cologne.] Psidium guajava Guava [Fruit rich in vitamins A, B, and C.] P. cattleianum Strawberry Guava [Planted on campus.] Feijoa sellowiana Pineapple Guava [Planted on Campus.] Syzygium (Eugenia) aromaticum Clove [From unopened flower buds.] Syzygium (Eugenia) malaccensis Mountain or Malay Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) jambos Malayan Rose Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) paniculatum Australian Brush Cherry Eugenia uniflora Surinam Cherry Myrciaria cauliflora Jaboticaba [Cauliflorous tree from Brazil with purple, grapelike berries that develop from the trunk and limbs.] Leptospermum scoparium New Zealand Tea Plant [Leaves brewed into a tea to provide vitamin C for Captain Cook's crew.] See Unusual Cauliflorous Berries Of Jaboticaba Tree See Tropical Allspice Berries And Bay Rum Tree See Cloves: Flower Buds From The Spice Islands See Guava, Strawberry Guava & Pineapple Guava Fruits See The Fruit And Flower Of Rose Apple Or Malabar Plum See The Fruit Of The Mountain Apple Or Malay Apple See The Fruit Of The South American Surinam Cherry See The Colorful, Insipid Fruits Of Australian Brush Cherry See New Zealand Tea Plant Used By Captain Cook's Crew The name "gum" can be traced back to the voyage of Captain James Cook to the South Pacific in 1770. Captain Cook discovered the east coast of Australia, called New Holland at that time. In one harbor, the ship's naturalists found so many unusual and beautiful plants that they named it Botany Bay. Eight years later, a fleet of eleven English ships reached Botany Bay with 1,530 people, 736 of them convicts. This marked the establishment of England's most important prison camp of the nineteenth century, and the European settlement of a vast land called Australia. The actual discovery of the genus Eucalyptus is credited to the ship's botanist, Joseph Banks (later Sir Joseph Banks). One of the newly discovered species "red bloodwood" (E. gummifera) had a reddish gum exuding from its trunk, and the naturalists called it a "gum tree." Other species of eucalyptus with persistent bark fall into five additional groups, called ironbarks (bark hard and deeply fissured), peppermint barks (bark finely fibrous), stringy barks (bark long and fibrous), boxes (bark rough and fibrous), and bloodwoods (bark rough, cracked and scaly on trunk and large limbs). Another group of large trees, called ashes, have rough bark on the trunk but smoother bark on the branches. In fact, the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) rivals the California redwoods as the world's tallest trees. With about 500 described species dominating more than 80 percent of Australia's forests, it is convenient to categorize them within different groups based upon their bark type. In fact, one of the most striking species with thick, deeply furrowed, persistent black bark is the red ironbark (E. sideroxylon), commonly planted at Palomar College. In addition to tree forms, there are numerous drought resistant, shrubby eucalyptus called mallees. Some of these resprout from subterranean lignotubers like many of our chaparral shrubs. One of these (Eucalyptus macrocarpa) produces spectacular red blossoms and the largest seed capsules of any eucalyptus. Some mallees of parched desert regions store water in their roots, a fact well-known to Australian aborigines. See Spectacular Eucalyptus Macrocarpa in Full Bloom See The Fire-Adapted Lignotuber of a Chaparral Shrub See Photos Of Eucalyptus In Article About Hardwoods Chemically the eucalyptus "gums" are rich in tannins (kinotannic acid) and are similar to another phenolic compound called catechu. They are known in the trade as kinos or gum kinos and are used as tannins to convert animal hide into leather. One of the main Australian sources of kino is the common red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), naturalized throughout San Diego County. Kino gums are also used medicinally as astringents to relieve throat irritation, dysentery and diarrhoea. True polysaccharide gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), and chicle, a terpene gum from the latex sap of the sapodilla tree (Achras zapota), are chemically quite different. They all probably serve to seal off wounds and prevent bacterial and fungal infections. Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) is a volatile terpene compound (called an essential oil) which is distilled from the leaves of several species. It is used for flavorings, dentifrices, cough drops, and for the synthesis of menthol. The lemony fragrance from the leaves of lemon-scented gum (E. citriodora) is due to another volatile terpene called citronellal. One of the reasons that few plants will grow well beneath naturalized gum forests in southern California is that volatile terpenes from fallen leaves are leached into the soil, thereby inhibiting seed germination and growth of competing species. The wood of different species of eucalyptus varies considerably, from wood as soft as pines to very hard, close-grained wood as dense as oak and hickory. Eucalypts constitute most of the forest vegetation of Australia and are one of the most important hardwood timber resources in the world. There are a number of species that provide excellent lumber for furniture, wood-carving and construction, including karri (E. diversicolor), spotted gum (E. maculata), blackbutt (E. pilularis), and jarrah (E. marginata). In fact, jarrah is stronger and more durable than oak and resistant to termites and marine borers. During the late 1800s and early 1900s several species of gums (including E. camaldulensis and E. globulus) were extensively planted in California for lumber, firewood, windbreaks and railroad ties. Although the species selected for extensive plantings grew into forests very rapidly, the wood proved very undesirable for lumber and railroad ties because of extensive splitting during the drying process. Today, these extensive forests have forever changed the character of coastal southern and central California. Nelumbonaceae: Water Lotus Family Back To Alphabet Table Nelumbo nucifera Asian Water Lotus [The seeds are eaten raw and roasted; the thick, starchy rhizomes are boiled, stir-fried and pickled.] See Flowers, Receptacle & Seeds Of Water Lotus Nostocaceae: Nostoc Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Nostoc commune Star Jelly [A freshwater cyanobacterium that is eaten raw, dried, stir-fried and in soups. It is sold dried in Asian markets.] Nostoc flagelliforme Fat Choy or Fa Cai [A filamentous, terestrial cyanobacterium of northern and northwestern China; the Cantonese and Mandarin names mean "hair vegetable" because the hair-like strands resemble black hair when dry.] More Information About Fat Choy See Nostoc Balls In A Vernal Pool 78. Nyctaginaceae: Four O-Clock Family Back To Alphabet Table Bougainvillea glabra Bougainvillea Mirabilis laevis Wild Four O'Clock 79. Oleaceae: Olive Family Back To Alphabet Table Fraxinus spp. Ash [Beautiful light open-grain wood.] Jasminum officinale Jasmine [From flowers, used for perfume & teas.] Olea europaea Olive [Native to the Mediterranean region; fresh olives (drupes) are extremely bitter due to oleuropein, a phenolic glucoside; olives soaked in lye (sodium hydroxide) to remove the bitter oleuropein; olives picked green are oxidized in air to produce black color; green olives kept submerged will retain green color; pitted green olives often stuffed with pimento, a bright red Capsicum cultivar; unlike most unsaturated plant oils which come from seeds, monounsaturated olive oil is obtained from the pulp or mesocarp of the fruit; virgin olive oil is obtained from the 1st pressing.] Syringa vulgaris Lilac [Not the same as California lilac or Ceanothus.] Read About Monounsaturated Olive Oil See Canned & Mature Olives On Branch 80. Orchidaceae: Orchid Family Back To Alphabet Table Vanilla planifolia (V. fragrans) Vanilla [From fermented and dried seed capsules called vanilla beans.] V. pompona West Indian Vanilla Note: Imitation vanilla flavorings sold in markets are synthetic vanillin containing artificial food coloring & preservatives; vanillin is a phenolic compound derived from lignin. Photos & Information About The Vanilla Orchid Oscillatoriaceae: Oscillatoria Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Spirulina platensis Spirulina [A cyanobacterium found in alkaline and saline water; it is dried into a powder and sold as a nutritious, high protein food supplement.] 81. Oxalidaceae: Oxalis Family Back To Alphabet Table Averrhoa carambola Carambola [An elongate, angular fruit composed of 5 carpels with a star-shaped cross section; the tartness is due to calcium oxalate crystals in the flesh which dissolve in the saliva forming oxalic acid.] Averrhoa bilimbi Cucumber Tree [An interesting Malayan tree with edible cauliflorous fruits.] Oxalis albicans ssp. californica, O. corniculata ssp. corniculata, and O. cernua Oxalis or Sour Grass [Native and naturalized species on the Palomar College campus.] See Photo Of The Amazing Carambola Fruit See Photo Of The Cauliflorous Cucumber Tree Palmaceae: Palm Family See Arecaceae Palmae: Palm Family See Arecaceae 82. Pandanaceae: Pandanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Pandanus tectorius Pandanus [Polynesian plant resembling a palm with prop roots; leaves used for baskets, floor coverings, mats and thatching for houses; woody, seed-bearing sections (containing edible seeds) used for necklaces and leis.] See Photos Of Remarkable Pandanus Plant 83. Papaveraceae: Poppy Family Back To Alphabet Table Papaver somniferum Opium Poppy [Source of isoquinoline alkaloids codeine, morphine, & diacetylmorphine (heroin); also poppy seeds.] See Opium Poppy: Source Of Narcotics & Poppy Seeds 84. Passifloraceae: Passionflower Family Back To Alphabet Table Passiflora edulis, ligularis, & quadrangularis [Granadilla or passion fruit used in Hawaiian Punch; passion fruit vines planted on campus.] See The Fruit & Blossom Of Passionflower Pedaliaceae: Pedalium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sesamum indicum Sesame [Herb with oil-rich seeds; tasty seeds sprinkled on breads, cakes, cookies and candies.] See Flower & Seeds Of Sesame Plant Phallaceae: Stinkhorn Fungus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dictyophora indusiata Basket Stinkhorn or Bamboo Mushroom [A tropical stinkhorn fungus with a lacy, netlike veil that hangs down from the phalluslike head; dried stinkhorns are packaged and sold in Asian markets; they are cooked in water and eaten in vegetarian dishes.] See Photos Of The Stinkhorn Fungus See Photo Of The Basket Stinkhorn 85. Phytolaccaceae: Pokeweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Phytolacca americana Pokeweed or Poke Salet [Native American weed or potherb; the young leaves are cooked and eaten like spinach.] See Pokeweed And Closely Related Ombu Tree Pittosporaceae: Pittosporum Family Back To Alphabet Table Billardiera cymosa Sweet Appleberry [Native to Australia; fruits eaten by Aborigines.] Billardiera longiflora Purple Appleberry [Native to Australia; evergreen climbing shrub.] Billardiera scandens Appleberry [Native to Australia; edible fruit used in baked pastries.] 86. Pinaceae: Pine Family Back To Alphabet Table [An extremely important family for lumber and wood distillation products.] Abies balsamea Canada Balsam [Oleoresin from bark used as a mounting medium for microscope work.] Other species of Abies Fir [Used for boxes, crates, and Christmas trees.] Picea spp. Spruce. [Wood used for pulpwood, boxes, etc. Because it is resonant it is much used for sounding boards of pianos and the bodies of violins and similar instruments; Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is used for boats, oars, and other products; spruce gum comes from the sapwood of red spruce (P. rubens); very beautiful conifers.] Pinus spp. Pines. [Economically important lumber trees.] Pines are very important lumber trees, e.g. eastern white pine (P. strobus), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa); raw turpentines are oleoresins (liquid resins containing essential oils) exuded as pitch; "spirits" of turpentine from distilled pitch; rosin is left after the volatile "spirits of turpentine" are removed; most raw turpentine from longleaf pine (P. palustris), loblolly pine (P. taeda) and slash pine (P. elliottii); slash pine also used in pulpwood industry for making paper; European sources of turpentines include cluster pine (P. pinaster) and Scotch pine (P. sylvestris). Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir [Most important timber tree in U.S.; common type of wood (plywood and 2 X 4's) sold at lumber yards.] Tsuga spp. Hemlock (e.g. T. canadensis) [Also used for lumber, etc; bark is chief domestic source of tannin in U.S.] Larix spp. Larch [Wood used for building construction, fences, etc.] Other wood distillation products from pine family (mostly pines) is wood alcohol (methanol); however, hardwood angiosperms are the main source. Also pine nuts from the following species of Pinyon Pines: P. monophylla, P. edulis, and P. quadrifolia. Other native California pines: P. sabiniana (digger pine), P. coulteri (Coulter pine), P. torreyana (Torrey pine). Pignolia Nuts from Italian Stone Pine (P. pinea) also planted on Palomar College campus. See Article About Wood & Wood Products See Images Of Spruce & Uses By Native People See Images Of Larch (Larix), A Deciduous Conifer Photos Of Resins & Incenses From Plants 87. Piperaceae: Pepper Family Back To Alphabet Table Piper nigrum Black Pepper [The dried, black, seed-bearing berries are the source of "fresh ground pepper."] Piper methysticum Kava Kava [Drink made from roots used in Polynesian religious and social life; a popular herb sold throughout the world as a mild sedative and tranquilizer.] See Photo Of Fresh And Dried Black Peppers. See Photo Of The Amazing Kava Kava Plant. Plantaginaceae: Plantain Family Back To Alphabet Table Plantago spp. Plantain or Psyllium [The thickening and swelling of soluble fiber extracts such as Metamucil(R) and Hydrocil(R) involves imbibition. These plant products contain a mucilaginous gum derived from the husks of psyllium seeds (Plantago psyllium and P. ovata). Psyllium powder readily absorbs water and forms a smooth bulky mass that moves through the intestinal tract. Insoluble fiber comes from the indigestible cellulose cell walls of fruits and vegetables. Both types of fiber are beneficial in maintaining a healthy colon, particularly in older adults with diverticulosis.] See Close-up Photo Of Fresh Plantain Seeds 88. Poaceae: Grass Family (Gramineae) Back To Alphabet Table This Is A Very Important Family For People And Herbivorous Animals! 1. Food for people and livestock: Rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale cereale), oats (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), corn or maize (Zea mays), teosinte (Zea mexicana) the ancestor of corn (madre de maiz); sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and many other species; also bamboo shoots used in Chinese and Cantonese foods. Rye (Secale cereale) is a diploid plant (2n) composed of 2 sets of chromosomes (DD), each set with 7 chromosomes (D=7). [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Therefore, the diploid number, or number of chromosomes in the rye sporophyte (DD), is 14. Bread wheat is a hexaploid (6n) composed of 6 sets of chromosomes (AA, BB & CC), each set with 7 chromosomes (A=7, B=7, C=7). Therefore, the number of chromosomes in the wheat hexaploid sporophyte (AABBCC) is 42. Triticale (Triticosecale) is a bigeneric hybrid between wheat (Triticum aestivum n=21) and rye (Secale cereale n=7). The resulting hybrid (ABCD) contains one set of rye chromosomes (D) and 3 sets of wheat chromosomes (ABC), a total of 28 chromosomes (7 + 21). It is sterile because the rye (D) set has no homologous set to pair up with during synapsis. This sterile hybrid seedling is treated with colchicine to produce a plant with twice as many chromosomes (i.e. 2A's, 2B's, 2C's and 2 D's), a total of 56. The fertile hybrid is an octoploid (8n) because it contains 8 sets of chromosomes. The diploid rye plant (DD) can also be crossed with tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum AABB) to produce a sterile triploid hybrid with 3 sets of chromosomes (ABD). This hybrid is treated with colchicine to produce a fertile hexaploid (6n) version of triticale (AABBDD). Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ) is derived from wild emmer wheat of Syria. Emmer wheat is a tetraploid hybrid (4n=28) between einkorn wheat (T. monococcum or a relative) and a grass similar to the present-day goat grass (T. speltoides = Aegilops speltoides); or possibly T. longissima or T searsii. The original diploid (2n=14) emmer wheat was probably sterile because it contained only 2 sets of chromosomes, one from the einkorn parent (n=7) and one from the goat grass parent (n=7). Through a natural doubling of the chromosomes, a fertile tetraploid emmer wheat with 4 sets of chromosomes was produced. A mutation in the tetraploid emmer wheat, causing the bracts (glumes) enclosing the grain to break away readily, gave rise to the tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum or T. turgidum var. durum). The readily detachable grain makes the separation of the grain from the chaff relatively easy and is why durum wheat is called a "free-thrashing" type of wheat. Tetraploid wheat also contains two proteins that combine to form a tenacious complex called gluten. Because of gluten, the wheat flour becomes elastic when mixed with water and kneaded, and when yeast is added, it rises into firm loaves. Yeast cells in the dough undergo fermentation and release carbon dioxide which becomes trapped in the glutinous protein mass. Baking "sets" the dough by drying the starch and denaturing the gluten protein. As the dough bakes, the carbon dioxide gas expands into larger bubbles, thus producing the porous, spongy texture of bread. Corn does not make good loaves of bread because it lacks gliadin, one of the key proteins of gluten. Consequently, corn bread crumbles and falls apart easily. See Photo Comparison Of Corn Bread & Wheat Bread Bread wheat (T. aestivum) is also a free-thrashing type of wheat. It is a hexaploid (6n) hybrid, four sets from an emmer wheat parent and two additional sets from a wild, weedy species (T. tauschii = Aegilops squarrosa). The endosperm of this hybrid wheat is especially high in protein and surpasses other wheats for bread making. 2. Main source of sugar (sucrose): Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum). 3. Alcoholic Beverages: a. Beer. Malt sugar (maltose) from germinating barley; starch inside grains converted into maltose. b. Sake. Made from fermented rice. c. Other distilled beverages. Whiskey made from maize, rye, etc.; bourbon made primarily from maize; scotch made from barley malt; vodka made from wheat; rum is made from sugar cane; gin is made from barley malt and rye, and flavored with oil of juniper; brandy is distilled from wine or other fruit juices (it may be 65 to 70 percent alcohol or 130 to 140 proof; some German whiskies are made from potatoes. 4. Various types of timber bamboo used for construction and scaffolding: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, etc. 5. Oil of Citronella: From leaves of Cymbopogon nardus. 6. Job's Tears (Coix lacryma-job) [A fascinating grass used for bead jewelry.] Job's Tears, Teosinte, And Indian Corn See Broomcorn: A Variety Of Sorghum See Sorghum Or Milo (Sorghum bicolor) See Photos Of Important Cereal Grasses Bamboo: Economically Valuable Giant Grasses See Sugar Cane On The Island Of Kauai 89. Polygalaceae: Milkwort Family Back To Alphabet Table Polygala senega Senega Snakeroot [Drug senega from dried roots.] 90. Polygonaceae: Buckwheat Family Back To Alphabet Table Fagopyrum sagittatum Buckwheat [Flour from achenes.] Eriogoum Wild Buckwheat [A large genus of shrubs, annuals and perennials in California; one of the largest genera in California with over 112 different species; rivaled in size (in California) only by the genus Carex.] Coccoloba uvifera Sea Grape [A spawling shrub or small tree along the shores of Caribbean islands; grapelike clusters of fruits noted by Columbus on his first voyage to the New World.] Rheum rhaponticum Rhubarb [Eat petioles (leaf stalks) only because leaf blades contain high levels of toxic oxalates.] Rumex hymenosepalus Wild Rhubarb [Wild in several coastal riverbeds, such as the San Dieguito Riverbed); also a tanning material from roots called canaigre containing about 30% tannin.] A Sea Grape On The Caribbean Shore Costa Rica See The Edible Petioles (Leaf Stalks) Of Rhubarb See Nutritious Achenes Of The Buckwheat Family 91. Portulacaceae: Purslane Family Back To Alphabet Table Portulaca oleracea Purslane [Common prostrate weed with edible, succulent leaves and stems; a C-4 plant, grows rapidly during hot summr months in southern California.] Montia perfoliata (Claytonia perfoliata) Miner's Lettuce [Common native plant in California; leaves and stems used in salads; other weedy species in this family used as pot herbs.] Purslane: A Delicious Pot Herb And Classic C-4 Plant 92. Proteaceae: Protea Family Back To Alphabet Table Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla Queensland or Macadamia nut [In Palomar College Arboretum.] Banksia and Hakea [Drought resistent shrubs planted on Palomar College campus.] See Helicopter Seeds of Banksia and Hakea See Macadamia Nuts In Their Husks Pseudomonadaceae: Pseudomonas Family Back To Alphabet Table Xanthomonas campestris Xanthan Bacteria [Xanthan gum is produced by fermenting corn sugar with this bacteria; the bacteria produce xanthan as part of their cell walls; xanthan gum is used in many food products, including salad dressings and low cholesterol egg substitutes made from egg whites and vegetable gums.] Pteridacaceae: Bracken Fern Family Back To Alphabet Table Pteris ensiformis Hoko-shida or Sword Brake [In Asian countries the young, uncurling fronds (called fiddleheads) are cooked and eaten with rice or other vegetables.] Pteridium aquilinum Braken Fern [Another species with edible fiddleheads; in San Diego County the gathering of fiddleheads is strictly prohibited because local populations of bracken fern could be decimated.] Bracken Fern Fiddlehead In San Diego County 93. Punicaceae: Pomegranate Family Back To Alphabet Table Punica granatum Pomegranate See A Ripe Pomegranate Fruit No Families With Q Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 94. Resedaceae: Mignonette Family Back To Alphabet Table Reseda luteola Dyer's Weld According to the textbook for this course Plants In Our World by B. B. Simpson and M. C. Ogarzaly (1995), woad was one of the dyes used to make the green outfits worn by Robin Hood's men deep in Sherwood forest. Their clothing was dipped in a blue dye bath of woad, and then in a bath of yellow weld from the leaves of Reseda luteola, a member of the mignonette family (Resedaceae). The mixture of blue and yellow produced the characteristic green color associated with England's legendary bandit who robbed from the rich and gave to the poor. 95. Rhamnaceae: Buckthorn Family Back To Alphabet Table Rhamnus purshiana Cascara Sagrada [Laxative cascara from bark.] Ziziphus jujuba Jujube [Small fleshy drupe; also one of the trees inhabited by the lac insect, a source of shellac.] See Jujube Fruits & California Desert Jujube Photo Of Seed Lac: Excretion Of Lac Insect 96. Roccellaceae: Rocella Family Back To Alphabet Table Roccella tinctoria Roccella [The thallus of this lichen contains phenolic acids which serve as a purple-red dye; orcein, a purple-red chromosomal stain found in every microbiology laboratory, is derived from this lichen species.] Lichen acids were the source of important dyes for cotton and wool in medieval Europe. Two purple and red dyes, orchil and cudbear, were obtained from the lichens Roccella and Ochrolechia. Lichen dyes were dissolved in human urine, and the yarns were immersed in this mixture. Ammonia salts in the urine functioned as mordants to make the dyes permanent. Pine lichen or wolf moss (Letharia vulpina), a beautiful chartreuse fruticose lichen that grows on the bark of pines and fir throughout the mountains of the Pacific United States, contains a mildly toxic yellow dye called vulpinic acid. The striking canary-yellow porcupine quills woven into the baskets of Klamoth and Yurok Indians were dyed with this lichen. A brownish dye from the foliose lichen Parmelia omphalodes is used to this day on hand-woven Harris tweeds from the Outer Hebrides. Some lichens contain various phenolic acids and essential oils that produce fragrant odors in scented soaps and help fix the aroma of fine perfumes. For centuries a lovely fruticose lichen called oak moss (Evernia prunastri) has been collected in Europe for making perfume.Through a complex process of solvent extraction and distillation, oak moss has become an important ingredient in the manufacture of perfumes and high-quality cosmetics. This remarkable lichen occurs in California, but air pollution has eliminated it throughout most of its former range in southern California. Oak moss still clings to the branches of ponderosa pines on Palomar Mountain in San Diego County. See Article About Lichens And Desert Varnish See Photos of Lichens Used For Dyes & Perfumes 97. Rosaceae: Rose Family Back To Alphabet Table Cydonia oblonga Quince Eriobotrya japonica Loquat Fragaria spp. (F. x ananassa, F. virginiana, F. chiloensis) Strawberry Prunus americana Wild Plum [Also other plum species used for prunes.] P. amygdalus Almond P. armeniaca Apricot P. avium & cerasus Cherry. P. domestica Garden Plum P. persica Peach P. persica var. nectarina Nectarine Pyrus communis Pear Malus sylvestris (Pyrus malus) [Common Apple and also wild crab apples.] Mesipulus germanica Medlar [A small, deciduous tree native to Europe and Asia Minor; the ripe, apple-shaped pomes are eaten raw and used in preserves.] Quillaja saponaria Soapbark Rosa spp. (R. odorata, R. damascena, R. gallica, R. rugosa) Rose [Numerous cultivated species and hybrid varieties; the fruits are called rose hips, an excellent natural source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) used in vitamin supplements.] Rubus spp. (R. idaeus, R. occidentalis, R. ursinus) Raspberry, Blackberry, Loganberry, & Dewberry. Apple, Pear, Quince, Loquat, Peach & Cherry Fruits See A Fresh Pluot: A Cross Between The Plum & Apricot See A Fresh Greenish Almond Right From The Tree See A Fresh Apricot With The Pit (Endocarp) Inside See The Aggregate fruit Of A Rose Called A Rose Hip See Aggregate Fruits Of The Blackberry And Strawberry 98. Rubiaceae: Madder Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinchona spp. (C. ledgeriana, C. pubescens, and C. officinalis) Quinine [From bark of several species native to the Andes of South America; important alkaloid in treatment of Malaria.] Genipa americana Genip [Little-known fruit of the West Indies.] Morinda citrifolia Painkiller Tree or "Noni." Coffea arabica Arabian Coffee [From seeds.] Rubia tinctorum Madder [Brilliant scarlet dye from roots; during Revolutionary War, the red coats of British soldiers were colored with this brilliant crimson dye.] Gardenia jasminoides Gardenia [Perfume from fragrant blossoms.] Nertera granadensis Pin Cushion Plant [Decorative little plant sold in southern California during fall months.] See The Red Dye Plant Called Madder See Coffee Plants On The Island Of Kauai See The Painkiller Tree Called "Noni." Pin Cushion Plant With Orange Fruits 99. Rutaceae: Rue Family Back To Alphabet Table Casimiroa edulis White Sapote [Banana-peach flavor.] Murraya koenigii Curry Leaf Tree [Leaves used in curries and curry powder.] Citrus aurantiifolia Lime C. limettioides Sweet Lime C. limetta Sweet Lemon C. aurantium Sour Orange (Bitter Orange) [One of the best oranges for making marmalade.] C. bergamia Bergamot [Perfume from fruit rinds; essential oil from peel also used as a flavoring in hard candy, baked goods, desserts and Earl Gray tea. Note: Bergamot tea comes from leaves of Monarda didyma and M. citriodora (Lamiaceae), also called Oswego tea or bee balm.] C. limon Lemon C. maxima Shaddock (Pomelo) C. medica Citron C. reticulata (C. nobilis) Mandarin Orange or Tangerine C. sinensis Sweet Orange C. x paradisi Grapefruit: Shaddock (C. maxima) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x nobilis Tangor: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x tangelo Tangelo: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Grapefruit (C. paradisi) Note: There are many other cultivated varieties of Citrus species. Fortunella japonica Round Kumquat F. margarita Oval Kumquat x Citrofortunella microcarpa Calamondin: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Kumquat (F. margarita) See Assorted Fruits (Hesperidiums) Of The Citrus Family See Tangelo Hybrid And Its Orange & Grapefruit Parents See Large & Amazing Pomelo--Mother Of The Grapefruit See The Delicious Lime And The Kumquat (Fortunella) See The Delicious Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides) See The Calamondin (x Citrofortunella microcarpa) See The Sweet White Sapote: Not A Hesperidium See The Curry Leaf Tree (Murraya koenigii) 100. Saccharomycetaceae: Yeast Family Back To Alphabet Table Kluyveromyces marxianus Nutritional Food Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. uuvarum Beer, Wine and Bread Yeasts Torulaspora delbrueckii Sherry Yeast Because of their ability to ferment sugars, yeast fungi play a major role in the beer, wine and baking industries. In the brewery, ethyl alcohol (ethanol) from the fermentation process is the primary industrial product; in the bakery, carbon dioxide released from the fermentation process causes the dough to rise. There are numerous optimal strains of these fungi adapted for specific types of fermented products. Go to the grass family (Poaceae) to see the numerous alcoholic beverages made from yeast fermentation. Note: The yeast responsible for kefir grains and sourdough bread is Torulopsis holmii in the family Cryptococcaceae. See The Hop Vine Used To Make Beer 101. Salicaceae: Willow Family Back To Alphabet Table Populus balsamifera Balsam Poplar; P. deltoides Cottonwood; P. tremuloides Quaking or White Aspen [Uses include a soft wood for boxes, etc. and as pulpwood in manufacture of paper.] 102. Santalaceae: Sandalwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Santalum album Sandalwood [The valuable scented heartwood of this Old World species is the source of sandalwood oil; other species of sandalwood are also highly prized for their wood; deforestation of native Hawaiian forests was originally due to the exportation of sandalwood.] Note: Red sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus) belongs to the legume family (Fabaceae). The powdered wood of red sandalwood is used for a bright red dye. Read About Hawaiian Sandalwood 103. Sapindaceae: Soapberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Sapindus saponaria Soapberry [Planted on Palomar College campus.] Schleichera oleosa Lac Tree [Host for lac insect.] Euphoria longana (Dimocarpus longan) Longan Litchi chinensis (Nephelium litchi) Lychee Nephelium lappaceum Rambutan Blighia sapida Akee Paullinia cupana Guarana [The "cola" of Brazil made from the dried, roasted seeds; guarana contains more than 5% caffeine, compared with about 1% for yerba mate tea.] Noteworthy Plants Article About Soaplily & Soapberry See Photos Of The Delicious Logan, Lychee and Rambutan See The High Caffeine "Cola Of Brazil" Called Guarana See Akee Fruit That Is Poisonous If Eaten At Wrong Stage 104. Sapotaceae: Sapodilla Family Back To Alphabet Table Acras zapota (Manilkara zapota) Sapodilla or Naseberry Tree [Chicle, the latex sap of the sapodilla tree, commonly used in chewing gums, is actually an elastic terpene polymer (polyterpene) similar to natural rubber.] Chrysophyllum cainito Star Apple [Interesting fruit of the Caribbean marketplace.] Palaquium gutta Gutta-Percha [The milky latex sap yields a polyterpene rubber with a number of remarkable uses, from the cores of golf balls to root canals of your teeth.] Pouteria sapota (Calocarpum sapota & C. mammosum) Mamey Sapote [Tropical American tree; large dark browm seeds used in Indian necklaces.] Pouteria campechiana Eggfruit or Canistel [Tropical American tree with delicious, fleshy fruit containing large, brown, shiny seeds.] See Article About Rubber And Chicle See The Amazing Uses Of Gutta-Percha Read About Mamey Sapote And Eggfruit See The Large Fruit Of A Mamey Sapote See An Eggfruit With Shiny Brown Seeds Star Apple From Hawaiian Island Of Maui Saururaceae: Lizard-Tail Family Back To Alphabet Table Anemopsis californica Yerba Mansa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; root made into a tea to relieve indigestion, asthma and to purify the blood; tea also used as liniment for rashes, cuts, bruises and sores; boiled leaves used as poultice for muscular aches and pains.] See Yerba Mansa In San Diego County 105. Saxifragaceae: Saxifrage Family Back To Alphabet Table Ribes spp. Currant and Gooseberry. [Also alternate host of white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola); since the white pine is more important economically as well as ecologically, the currants & gooseberries are eradicated in certain forested regions; gooseberries can be differentiated from currants because they are generally very spiny. See California Gooseberries And Currants 106. Scrophulariaceae: Figwort or Snapdragon Family Back To Alphabet Table Digitalis purpurea Foxglove [Heart stimulant (cardiac glycoside) digoxin and digitoxin from leaves.] Plants Producing Medical Glycosides 107. Simmondsiaceae: Jojoba Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: Jojoba was formerly placed in the Buxaceae. Simmondsia chinensis Jojoba [Native shrubs; seeds are edible; oil from seeds used as substitute for whale oil; oil used for wax, polish, and candles.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Jojoba Oil 108. Solanaceae: Nightshade Family Back To Alphabet Table Atropa belladonna Belladonna [Alkaloid atropine from lvs.] Capsicum annuum Red, Wax, Bell and Jalapeno Chile Peppers. [Many different varieties of peppers; paprika from dried fruit of one variety.] C. baccatum South American Peppers Known as "Ajis." C. chinense Habanero Peppers [Very hot!] C. frutescens Tabasco Peppers C. pubescens South American "Rocotos" and Mexican "Manzanos." Datura stramonium Jimsonweed [Source of drug stramonium from leaves and flowering tops; contains the alkaloids hyoscyamine, scopolamine and atropine; Indians used liquid from crushed roots of D. stramonium, D. wrightii and D. meteloides for hallucinogenic effect during puberty ritual; drug is very poisonous and is dangerous.] Duboisia hopwoodii Pituri [Alkaloid scopolamine from leaves.] Hyoscyamus niger Black Henbane [Alkaloid hyoscyamine from leaves.] Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato Physalis ixocarpa Tomatillo P. peruviana Cape Gooseberry or Poha Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco Solanum melongena Eggplant [Numerous cultivars and the almagro eggplant landrace.] S. tuberosum Potato [Edible tubers; average baked tuber about 100 kilocalories, unless topped with mounds of butter and sour cream.] S. quitoense Naranjilla [A large perennial herb of the Andes with orange, tomatolike fruits.] Note: Black Pepper is from dried unripe fruit (berry) of Piper nigrum, a member of the family Piperaceae. See Article About Plant Alkaloids See Article About Chile Peppers See Tomato, Tomatillo & Eggplant Almagro Eggplant From Central Spain Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) Fascinating Story Of The Irish Potato 109. Sterculiaceae: Sterculia Family Back To Alphabet Table Cola nitida & Cola acuminata Cola-Nut [Seeds used in soft drinks & contain alkaloid caffeine.] Theobroma cacao Cacao [Seeds contain alkaloid theobromine and are source of chocolate; sweet chocolate has sugar and milk added.] Sterculia urens Gum Karaya or Sterculia Gum [Native to rocky hills and plateaus of India, the sap of this tree is the source of a valuable water-soluble gum that forms a strong adhesive gel when mixed with a small amount of water; because of its resistance to bacterial and enzymatic breakdown, it has been used for dental adhesives and as a binder in bologna and other lunch meats; it is also used in salad dressings, cheese spreads, whipped toppings and hair setting gels. S. lychnophora Poontalai or Pang da Hai [Seeds imbibe water and expand into a gelatinous mass that is used to make a beverage in southeast Asia.] S. foetida Java Olive [Although the flowers have a putrid odor, the seeds are eaten raw, roasted or fried.] See The Gelatinous Seed Of Sterculia lychnophora See The Seed Called Java Olive or Indian Almond See The Remarkable Cauliflorous Cacao Fruit See The Distinctive Leaves Of The Cola-Nut Tree 110. Taxaceae: Yew Family Back To Alphabet Table Taxus brevifolia Pacific Yew [Bark and needles are the source of taxol, a valuable drug for the tratment of ovarian and breat cancers.] See Pacific Yew Foliage And Seeds 111. Taxodiaceae: Taxodium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sequoia sempervirens Coast Redwood [Important lumber tree because of decay resistant wood; tallest tree species on earth, rivaled in height by the giant Eucalyptus regnans of Australia.] Sequoiadendron gigantum Giant Sequoia [Most massive living thing on earth, 36 ft. in diameter and over 1200 tons; mostly protected in several California National Parks such as Yosemite, Sequoia and King's Canyon.] Taxodium distichum Bald Cypress [Deciduous conifer of swamps with peculiar knees or pneumatophores; wood resistant to decay.] See WAYNE'S WORD Botanical Record-Breakers See Article About The Taxodium Family (Taxodiaceae) Ternstroemiaceae: Tea Family See Theaceae 112. Theaceae: Tea Family (Ternstroemiaceae) Back To Alphabet Table Camellia sinensis Tea [Leaves are source of the many varieties of green & black teas.] The grade of tea depends on the age of the leaves. In "golden tips" the youngest bud only is used; in "orange pekoe" the smallest leaf; in "pekoe" the second leaf; in "pekoe souchong" the third leaf; in "souchong" the fourth leaf; and in "congou" the fifth and largest leaf to be gathered. In green tea the leaves are dried and appear dull green; in black tea the leaves are fermented and then dried; "oolong tea" is only partially fermented and is intermediate between black and green. The various pekoes, souchongs, and congous are black teas, while gunpowder and hyson are the most important grades of green tea. See tea plant leaves & flower, and the closely related Camellia. 113. Tiliaceae: Basswood Family Back To Alphabet Table Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius Jute [Valuable stem fibers woven into burlap, sackcloth and tough twines.] Tilia americana American Basswood or Linden [In Palomar College Arboretum.] T. cordata European Linden Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle 114. Trapaceae: Water-Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Trapa bicornis Water Caltrop or "Ling Chio" [Asian water plant with strange woody fruit resembling the head of a bull; starchy seed inside fruits in cooked and eaten.] T. natans Water Caltrop [Another species of water caltrop with 4-pronged woody fruit.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Water Caltrop 115. Tuberaceae (and Terfeziaceae): Truffle Families Back To Alphabet Table Tuber melanosporum Black Truffle T. magnatum White Truffle T. gibbosum Oregon White Truffle Of all the edible fungi, truffles (Tuber spp.) are perhaps the most fascinating. They are truly the ne plus ultra of mushroom cuisine. Truffles are the fruiting bodies (ascocarps) of mycorrhizal ascomycetous fungi. Unlike other common forest mushrooms, truffles are subterranean and resemble small pebbles or clods of dirt beneath the soil. Truffles emit the odor of certain mammalian steroids and are irresistible to some mammals, including female pigs. This particular steroid is found in the saliva and breathe of male pigs (boars) and explains the natural lust and talent sows have for truffle hunting. Pigs and dogs can detect truffles from as far away as 50 yards, and there is even a case of a dog jumping over a hedge and running across a field to find a choice truffle under a beech tree 100 yards away. Since the fabled truffles of France and Italy retail for more than $500 a pound, a good swine or canine truffle sniffer is a valuable asset. Read About Truffles In Fungus Article See Some Dried Oregon White Truffles Umbelliferae: Carrot Family See Apiaceae 116. Urticaceae: Nettle Family Back To Alphabet Table Boehmeria nivea Ramie [Strong fibers from stems (stronger than cotton and flax); made into lustrous China grass cloth.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 117. Verbenaceae: Verbena Family Back To Alphabet Table Tectona grandis Teak [Wood is hard and does not warp, split, or crack, and is very resistant to termites and decay; elephants are often used in lumbering operations.] 118. Vitaceae: Grape Family Back To Alphabet Table Vitis labrusca North American Grape [Many varieties, including the Concord grape.] Vitis vinifera European Wine Grape [Many varieties of wine grapes and edible table grapes.] There are many varieties of grapes. In the European tightskins, which are used for wines, the skin does not separate readily from the pulp. Grapes are one of the oldest cultivated plants. They have been grown in Egypt for 6,000 years. They were highly developed by Greeks and Romans. Fermentation is brought about through the action of wild yeasts which are present on the skins of the fruit (whitish powder). The maximum alcoholic content of natural wines is about 12 to 16% (24 to 32 proof). Higher alcoholic content will kill the yeast cells. Brandy is made from distilled wines and has a much higher alcoholic content (up to 140 proof!). Red wines are made from grapes with colored skins (with anthocyanin), while white wines are made from white grapes (or red grapes with skins removed). In dry wines the sugar is almost completely fermented. In sweet wines fermentation is stopped before all the sugar is converted. The North American grapes are larger and more hardy than the European. The fruit is round with a more watery flesh and a thin skin that slips off very easily. They are used for eating and for making grape juice (concord grapes), jams, and jellies. Of course, grapes are also the source of raisins. See 'Thompson Seedless' & 'Red Seedless' Grapes No Families With W Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With X Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With Y Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 119. Zingiberaceae: Ginger Family Back To Alphabet Table Zingiber officinale Ginger [Rhizome is the source of an important spice (oleoresin) used in ginger ale, ginger beer, and gingerbread.] Curcuma domestica Turmeric [Curcuma longa also listed for turmeric; dried, ground rhizome used in curry powder and as a yellow dye.] Elettaria cardamomum Cardamom [A highly aromatic spice derived from the seeds and dried fruits; used in curry powder, seasoning for sausages, incenses, perfumes and medicines.] See A Turmeric Hybrid In Full Bloom See A Ginger Rhizome: A Valuable Spice 120. Zygophyllaceae: Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Guaicum officinale Ligum Vitae [One of the world's hardest ironwoods (specific gravity of 1.37); used for bushing blocks on propeller shafts of steamships; also source of gum guaiac, resin providing the natural, self-lubrication qualities of the wood; resin used medically to test for presence of hidden blood; peroxidase enzymes in blood cells oxidize chemicals in resin, resulting in a blue-green color change.] Tribulus terrestris Puncture Vine [Old World sprawling weed that is responsible for many punctured bicycle tires in the American southwest.] Larrea tridentata Creosote Bush [Dominant shrub of Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico.] One of the most common questions asked by my students on desert field trips is whether creosote comes from the creosote bush. The answer is an unequivocal no. The commercial source of creosote is derived from the distillation of coal tar. It is produced by high temperature carbonization of bituminous coal. Wood creosote is obtained from the distillation of wood tar from several woods of the eastern United States. Wood creosote is a mixture of phenolic compounds that are used medicinally as an antiseptic and expectorant. Under no circumstances should coal tar creosote be taken internally. Although creosote bush does not grow in the chaparral plant community of California, the dried leaves of this shrub are the source of "chaparral tea," a controversial herbal remedy with antitumor properties. The leaves contain a powerful antioxidant that apparently destroys tumor cells; however, there are reported cases of liver toxicity, including toxic hepatitis and jaundice. See The Resinous Leaves Of Creosote Bush Gum Guaiac & Other Uses For Lignum Vitae ______________________________________________________________ Economic Botany References 1. Armstrong, W.P. 1998. "The Wild and Wonderful Family of Gourds." Pacific Horticulture 59 (4): 11-18. 2. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Logwood: The Tree That Spawned A Nation." Pacific Horticulture 53 (1): 38-43 3. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Natural Dyes." Ornament 15 (4): 70-73 + 92-95. 4. Armstrong, W.P. 1982. "Not Beavers, Stars or Sons of Jupiter." Environment Southwest No. 496: 4-7. 5. Bailey, L.H. and E.Z. Bailey. 1976. Hortus Third. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. 6. Balick, M.J. and P.A. Cox. 1996. Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. Scientific American Library, New York. 7. Bianchini, F. and F. Corbetta. 1976. The Complete Book of Fruits and Vegetables. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. 8. Bold, H.C. and M.J. Wynne. 1985. Introduction To The Algae (2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 9. Boswell, V.R. 1949. "Our Vegetable Travelers." The National Geographic Magazine Vol. XCVI (2): 145-217. 10. Brock, T.D. and M.T. Madigan. 1988. Biology of Microorganisms (Fifth Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 11. Chrispeels, M.J. and D. Sadava. 1977. Plants, Food, and People. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 12. Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, California. 13. Fong, C.H. and Y. Hoi-Sen. 1980. Malaysian Fruits in Color. Tropical Press SDH. BHD. 56-1&2 Jalan Maarof, 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysaia. 14. Heiser, C.B., Jr. 1973. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Man's Food. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 15. Hill, A.F. Economic Botany. 1952. McGraw-Hill, New York. 16. Klein, R.M. 1979. The Green World: An Introduction to Plants and People. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York. 17. Langenheim, J.H. and K.V. Thimann. 1982. Plant Biology and its Relation to Human Affairs. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 18. Lewington, A. 1990. Plants For People. Oxford University Press, New York. 19. Lewis, W.H. and M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Man's Health. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 20. Levetin, E. and K. McMahon. 1996. Plants and Society. Wm. C. Brown, Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. 21. Read, B.E. and W. Wagner. 1940. Shanghai Vegetables. The China Journal Publishing Co., Ltd. 22. Richardson, W.N. and T. Stubbs. 1978. Plants, Agriculture and Human Society. W.A. Benjamin, Inc., Reading Massachusetts. 23. Robinson, T. 1964. The Organic Constituents of Higher Plants: Their Chemistry and Interrelationships. Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 24. Schery, R.W. 1972. Plants For Man. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 25. Simpson, B.B. and M.C. Ogorzaly. 1995. Economic Botany: Plants in Our World. Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. 26. Und, I. and P. Schoenfelder. 2004. Das Neue Handbuch der Heilpflanzen. Kosmos Verlag, Germany. 27. Van Aken, N. and J. Harrisson. 1995. The Great Exotic Fruit Book. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California. 28. Weiss, E.A. 1971. Castor, Sesame and Safflower. Barnes & Noble, New York. 29. Windholz, M., S. Budavari, R.F.Blumetti, and E. S. Otterbein (Editors). 1983. The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey. + Link To Purdue University Alphabetical Crop Index [top3.gif] [hipoicon.gif] List Of Economically Important Families __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To WAYNE'S WORD Home Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To NOTEWORTHY PLANTS Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To Biology GEE WHIZ TRIVIA Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To The LEMNACEAE ON-LINE Page All text material & images on these pages copyright (c) W.P. Armstrong #Healthy Girl's Kitchen - Atom Healthy Girl's Kitchen - RSS skip to main | skip to sidebar Healthy Girl's Kitchen [about1.png] [healthyrecipes1.png] [shophealthy1.png] [awesomeproducts1.png] [greatstrategies1.png] [endemotional1.png] Pages quote Your real work on this planet is not your weight or your fat. The fabric of your emotional journey is not about deprivation and overeating. It is about love and fear and manifesting the magnificent person you already are. It is time to pay attention to your real life. Stop distracting yourself from your emotional life. Find out what you are feeling and feel it. It is then that you can find the way to who you really are. I promise you, it is not just fat. -Brooke Castillo, If I am So Smart, Why Can't I Lose Weight? subscribe [subscribe_tag.png] [rss-pencil48.png] [twitter-pencil48.png] [facebook-pencil48.png] Enter your email address: ____________________ Subscribe Delivered by FeedBurner TIP: YOU MUST CONFIRM E-MAIL SUBSCRIPTION. CHECK YOUR E-MAIL AFTER SUBSCRIBING. CHECK YOUR SPAM--THE E-MAIL MAY BE THERE! contact me healthygirlskitchen@gmail.com Before! [before.png] Before! This is me before becoming Plant Strong! Total cholesterol: 231 After! [after.png] After! This is me after happily going Plant Strong for over two years. Total cholesterol: 147 Total weight loss: 40 pounds zazzle Volumetric Eating Remember caloric density when you are trying to lose weight. Vegetables have 100 calories per pound, fruit 300 calories per pound, whole grains 500 calories per pound, beans 600 calories per pound, animal meat, 1000 calories per pound, refined carbs (white flour stuff) 1400 calories per pound, junk food, 2300 calories per pound, nuts/seeds, 2800 calories per pound, oil 4000 calories per pound. Staying on the lower end of the caloric density scale is key to weight loss. ~Natala Constantine [disclaimer.png] Disclaimer Please keep in mind that I am not a nutritionist or doctor. I recommend checking with your doctor before making any changes to your diet. Most of the information on this blog is based upon my own personal experience and research. All photographs and content are copyright Healthy Girl's Kitchen. Please contact me for permission to use photographs and content. Foodgawker Gallery my foodgawker gallery Bliss Amazon stuff i love [stuff_tag.png] * Luscious Verde Cards * More from Luscious Verde * Peer Trainer * Cool Car Magnets * Eat to Live * The Engine 2 Diet * Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease * The Beck Diet Solution * The Best Kitchen Tool You'll Ever Find--The VitaMix Blender * You Are What You Eat on BBC America * Volumetrics * Cleveland Yoga * Trader Joe's * Penzey's Spices * Whole Foods Top 50 Blog 2 Learn why we're not just a Health Coach Training Program Food on the Table Grocery List Privacy Policy * HGK Privacy Policy Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School The envelope please. And the Academy Award for Most Useful Film goes to . . . Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School! [fast+food+shopping+school.jpg] Yes, it's THAT good. But what exactly is Fast Food Shopping School? Well, it's the third video in Jeff Novick's series called, you guessed it, Fast Food. [Fast+Food+Jeff+Novick+Videos+015+edited.jpg] That's the same series which freed me from the shackles in my brain that had me thinking that good, healthy, tasty food just "took a long time to make." Sometimes it does, but it doesn't always have to. You can read about that here, here and here. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/video-review-and-giveaway-jeff-novicks.html&layou t=standard&show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorschem e=light Pin It Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps [Moroccan+Burger+Wrap+021+edited+with+text.jpg] I'm gearing up this week to post a review of Jeff's Novick's latest video, "Fast Food Shopping School." I'm so excited to tell you about it, complete with a giveaway and promotions for those who don't win. Jeff, a nutritionist who also went to cooking school, is quickly becoming my biggest plant-based diet hero. I have learned so much from him and we've never met! He has really changed not only the amount of time I spend in the kitchen, but also my level of confidence. A few days ago on Facebook I saw Jeff posting a recipe for a new "Fast Food" burger of his with a Moroccan flair. I totally dig any veg'n Middle Eastern type food (I really have never met an ethnic food that I did not at least like), so I excitedly scribbled down the instructions. I prepared them a few days later and we have been enjoying them ever since (they keep well in the refrigerator). Not my favorite Fast Food burger of his, but certainly good. Then inspiration struck. I had some Roasted Red Pepper Hummus and grape tomatoes hanging around that I wanted to use up. Added to fresh sprouted grain tortillas and salad greens, and, well, the rest is history! The acidy pop from the warm tomatoes, the little bit of sweetness from the currants and the sweet potatoes, the creaminess from the hummus; it all just works wonders together. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/moroccan-veggie-burger-wraps.html&layout=standard &show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Designated Flatulence Area Is anyone watching the TV series "Portlandia?" A while back I wrote a blog posting called "Fart or Be Fat" I was somewhat new on a plant based diet and passing a lot of gas on most days. Fast forward two years and I have to think that I'm no gassier than I was pre-plant based eating, in fact, I might even be less gassy. Regardless of my personal gassy past, I know that for most people starting out on a plant based diet, excessive gas can cause great alarm. Enough to want to make some people throw in the towel. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/designated-flatulence-area.html&layout=standard&s how_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Older Posts Home Pinterest Follow Me on Pinterest Eat to Live [eatToLive.jpg] [show?id=A2JoAoaaUqw&bids=254134.7254325&type=2&subid=0] Dr. Fuhrman Dr. Fuhrman search this blog [search.png] Loading... [facebook.png] Become a Fan on FB bliss ad Blog Archive [archives_tag.png] * v 2013 (6) + v January (6) o Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food... o Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps o Designated Flatulence Area o Utopea Giveway Winner Announced and New Recipe (Fi... o One Grain More? One Laugh More! And How to Replace... o New Year, New Resolutions? 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Site + UW Fast Plants + UW Nematode Diagnostic Lab + UW Vegetable Pathology + Wisconsin Seed Potato Cert. Prog. * Seminars + Overview + Fridays @ 4 + Spring 2013 Seminars * Newsletters + The Pathogen * Contact Us Within This Section... * Overview * Visions, Values, and Goals * History * Facilities * Faculty and Staff * Plant Pathology Library * Research * News * Donations Search Search Plant Pathology Website: _______________ Search Vision, Values, and Goals Our Vision To be a World leader in research, teaching, and extension involving plant health, while serving the changing needs of society, the environment, and the University. Our Shared Values Our collective success depends upon creating and maintaining a supportive and collegial environment. Our effectiveness as a Department depends on accepting and utilizing diversity in work style, expertise, skills, personality, and outlook. Our ability to solve multifaceted problems requires contributions from, and mutual respect among, our research, teaching, and extension teams. Our ability to establish and to preserve excellence at the forefront of our changing field depends on innovation, creativity, risk-taking, and growth. Our Shared Goals Our research goal is to understand microbes, plants, and their interactions in the environment in order to provide effective approaches by which plant diseases can be controlled and beneficial interactions can be maximized. Our instructional goals are to offer superior education in plant pathology and plant-microbe interactions and to broaden the perspectives of plant biology in undergraduate, graduate, and public education. Our extension and outreach goals are to integrate and extend knowledge and provide services that foster an understanding of plant diseases and that enhance plant health, food safety, a profitable and sustainable agriculture, and stewardship of the environment. UW logo Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1598 608.262.1410 (tel) or 608.263.2626 (fax) Copyright (c) 2012 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System Feedback, questions, or accessibility issues: Russell Labs Computing Login Help The University of Texas at Austin Plant Biology Graduate Program Prospective Students Current Students Faculty Events Facilities Directory Contact Us Ecology Cell & Molecular Biology Phycology Physiology Systematics & Evolution __________________________________________________________________ School of Biological Sciences ____________________ Search Spotlight Taylor Quedensley Taylor Quedensley Ling Zhu Ling Zhu Welcome The Graduate Program in Plant Biology at The University of Texas at Austin has earned an international reputation for excellence in research and teaching in the plant sciences. The Plant Biology Program is a consortium of faculty from several sections of the School of Biological Sciences whose research is in one of six areas specializing in plants. These faculty supervise graduate students whose M.A. and Ph.D. degrees are based on empirical research focused on plants. The Graduate Program in Plant Biology supports graduate students with grants and assistantships in addition to the resources generally available in the Sections of the School of Biological Sciences. If you are a prospective student, you'll find information here ranging from admission requirements, research areas, faculty profiles and an overview of the extensive research facilities that The University of Texas at Austin has to offer. Plant Biology images. (Photo credit: Dr. Z. Jeffrey Chen/University of Texas at Austin; Shutterstock images) Site map | UT Austin | Copyright | Privacy | Accessibility @ 2006 School of Biological Sciences College of Natural Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin counter Northwestern University // Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Search site...______ Go Program in Plant Biology and Conservation * Home * About + Testimonials * Graduate + PhD Program + MS Program + Grants + Career and Professional Development + TGS Calendar * Undergraduate + Plant Biology Concentration + Combined Bachelor's/Master's Degree + Research Opportunities + Courses * People + Faculty + Students + Staff * Alumni + Research of Past Graduates + Alumni Communication * Research + Research Facilities + Research Areas * News and Events + Chicago Botanic Garden Events + Past Events + Recent Awards and Honors + News Archive + Publications Plant Biology Conservation The Program in Plant Biology and Conservation is a collaboration between Northwestern University and the Chicago Botanic Garden. The program offers PhD and MS degrees, as well as courses and research opportunities for undergraduates. Explore our site to learn more. In the Field Briscoe in the field Students in our program conduct research in both the field and the laboratory. Here Laura Briscoe is conducting research on bryophytes. News and Events Louise Egerton-Warburton, PhD has been awarded a booster grant of $30,000 from the Initiative for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern (ISEN) for her research Metagenomic Discovery of Novel Lignin Degrading Fungi for Biofuel Production. Matthew Rhodes was awarded a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research for $500 to support his Master's research focusing on how temporal variation in pollinator community structure influences reproductive dynamics and pollen movement in Oenothera harringtonii, an evening primrose endemic to southeastern Colorado, USA. His Master's advisor is Krissa Skogen. Byron Tsang defended his MS thesis "Environmental Factors Affecting Woodland Legume Restoration," on Tuesday, 27 November 2012 at 1:00 pm in the Plant Science Center Seminar Room at the Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe. Rebecca Tonietto, a third year PhD student has been awarded a Presidential Fellowship from Northwestern University's Graduate School for her research on determining the effects of tall grass prairie restoration on native bee communities. Her research supervisor is Dr. Dan Larkin. The fellowships are awarded to a very limited number of graduate students each year. PBC group on LinkedIn Join our LinkedIn Group About Our Partner Chicago Botanic Garden Explore the research and opportunities at the Plant Science Center at the Chicago Botanic Garden. Photo Gallery Program in Plant Biology and Conservation 2205 Tech Drive, O.T. Hogan Hall, Room 2-144, Evanston, IL 60208 USA Phone: voice+1-847-491-4031 Fax: fax+1-847-467-0525 E-mail: n-zerega@northwestern.edu Northwestern University | Judd A. and Marjorie Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Disclaimer and Policy Statements | Northwestern Calendar (c) 2012 Northwestern University Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences January 17, 2013 WHAT IS MYMET? Watch a video to find out. We're inviting you to share your favorite works of art using MyMet. See What's Your Met? for more information. Register Already have a mymet account? Sign in Email Address: ____________________ Forgotten your details? Password: ____________________ [ ] Stay logged in Sign In The Metropolitan Museum of Art Logo The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art Go to Navigation Go to Content Go to Search Search this web site ____________________ submit search * Visit + Hours and Admission + Plan Your Visit + Museum Map + Suggested Itineraries + Visit The Cloisters + Accessibility + Contact Information * Exhibitions + Current Exhibitions + Upcoming Exhibitions + Past Exhibitions * Collections + Browse Highlights + New Installations + Recent Acquisitions + Galleries + Search the Collections + Connections + Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History * Events + Find Events + Programs + Travel with the Met * Learn + For Kids + For Teens + For Adults + For College Students + For Educators + For Visitors with Disabilities * Research + Libraries and Study Centers + MetPublications + Internships and Fellowships + Archaeological Fieldwork + Conservation and Scientific Research + Curatorial Research + Image Resources + Provenance Research Project * Give and Join + Donate + Membership + Planned Giving + Benefit Parties + Corporate Support + Curatorial Friends Groups + Gifts in Honor or Memory * About the Museum + Now at the Met + The Met Around the World + Museum Mission Statement + History of the Museum + Museum Departments + Entertaining at the Met + Career and Volunteer Opportunities + Annual Reports + Collections Management Policy + Contact Information + Press Room * Shop Sign up for emails Email address_______ Sign up for emails Become a member MyMet Sign in / Register * Home > * Exhibitions > * Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings Shopping cart: Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings The exhibition is made possible by the Gail and Parker Gilbert Fund and the Jane and Robert Carroll Fund. Featured Media * Videos (9) [EMBED] Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. * Share * * Add to MyMet Submit Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Shield (Grere’o [?]) from the Solomon Islands Program information On the occasion of the exhibition Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings (on view June 5–September 3, 2012), the artist recorded his thoughts about various works of art in the Met's collection. Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Bird in Space, by Constantin Brancusi (00:01:26) 732 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:57) 1153 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Antoine Dominique Sauveur Aubert, (born 1817), the Artist's Uncle, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:47) 609 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Tlingit Ceremonial Copper (00:01:25) 198 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Cypriot Copper Ingot (00:01:19) 212 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Water Lilies, by Claude Monet (00:01:17) 681 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on his painting Blue Panel (00:01:47) 451 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on L'Arlésienne: Madame Joseph-Michel Ginoux (Marie Julien, 1848–1911), by Vincent van Gogh (00:01:23) 573 views Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings June 5–September 3, 2012 Accompanied by a catalogue and an Audio Guide One of the foremost artists of our day, Ellsworth Kelly (American, born 1923) may be best known for his rigorous abstract painting, but he has made figurative drawings throughout his career, creating an extraordinary body of work that now spans six decades. There has never been a major museum exhibition dedicated exclusively to the plant drawings. The selection of approximately eighty drawings begins in 1948 during Kelly's early sojourn in Paris and continues throughout his travels to his most recent work made in upstate New York. Related Content A free iTunes app was created in conjunction with two recent Ellsworth Kelly exhibitions in Munich. Met Media Met Media Met Kids Met Kids Met Store Met Store * Accessibility * Site Index * Terms and Conditions * Privacy Policy * Acknowledgments * Press © 2000–2012 The Metropolitan Museum of Art. All rights reserved. GA, the Society for Medicinal Plant and Natural Product Research (“Gesellschaft für Arzneipflanzen- und Naturstoff-Forschung”), was founded in 1953 in Bad Camberg, Germany, for the purpose of promotion and dissemination of medicinal plant research. Over the years GA has developed into an international scientific society with at present ca. 1400 members from 82 countries. The scientific interests of GA cover nowadays all aspects of medicinally used natural products like agricultural science, biology, chemistry, pharmacy, pharmacognosy, pharmacology and medicine. Since 1953 Planta Medica is the official journal of the society. Its impact factor is 2.037 (in 2009). GA organizes every year a large international congress on medicinal plant research in major European cities, and every 5 years joint meetings with related European and North American scientific societies. Besides, GA is setting up and supporting smaller symposia and workshops on specific topics related to natural product research. GA has established 5 permanent committees which elaborate and disseminate information on the following topics: · Biological and Pharmacological Activities of Natural Compounds · Breeding and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants · Manufacturing and Quality Control of Herbal Medicinal Products · Regulatory Affairs on Herbal Medicinal Products · Young Researchers Workshops Reasons for a Membership · To promote science and the dissemination of medicinal plant research. · To get informed on all activities of GA in first priority. · To join a group of people interested in the same field. · To get financial support for attending the scientific annual congress of GA. · To receive a financial discount in many areas related to GA. · To find the abstract book of the annual GA congress published in the members’ area of our homepage or to receive a free print copy on request in case you could not attend. · To subscribe to the journal Planta Medica at reduced subscription rates. · To become active in the planning of the future of GA. Benefits of a Membership · Continuous information on activities inside and outside the GA by a newsletter twice a year. · Being on the mailing list of all congresses and symposia organized by GA. · Access to closed sites of the GA homepage. · Reduced fees at congresses/symposia of GA. · Travel grants for students or young scientists to attend the annual congress of GA. · Free copy of the abstract book of the annual GA congress for members who did not attend. · Reduced subscription rates for Planta Medica either in “print” or “online only” version. #HuffPost Search The Full Feed Latest News The Blog Featured Posts Kathy Freston: A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet Kathy Freston: A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet HuffPost's QuickRead... Loading... HuffPost's QuickRead... 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GerardKlaus SchwabDavid BromwichJim Wallis Kathy Freston Kathy Freston Bestselling Author, "Veganist: Lose Weight, Get Healthy, Change the World" GET UPDATES FROM Kathy Freston Like [DEL: :DEL] 1k A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet Posted: 09/24/09 09:34 AM ET React [follow-arrow.png] Amazing Inspiring Funny Scary Hot Crazy Important Weird Follow [follow-arrow.png] Cancer , Cancer Cure , Health , Plant-Based Diet , Kathy Freston , Animal Protein , Carcinogens , Casein , Cure For Cancer , Nurtition , Preventative Medicine , T. Colin Campbell , Healthy Living News share this story Get Healthy Living Alerts ____________________ Sign Up Submit this story digg reddit stumble I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteemed doctors are saying is just beginning to be understood and accepted, perhaps because what they are saying does not conveniently fit in with or support the multi-billion dollar food industries that profit from our "not knowing". One thing is for sure: we are getting sicker and more obese than our health care system can handle, and the conventional methods of dealing with disease often have harmful side effects and are ineffective for some patients. As it is now, one out of every two of us will get cancer or heart disease and die from it - an ugly and painful death as anyone who has witnessed it can attest. And starting in the year 2000, one out of every three children who are born after that year will develop diabetes--a disease that for most sufferers (those with Type 2 diabetes) is largely preventable with lifestyle changes. This is a rapidly emerging crisis, the seriousness of which I'm not sure we have yet recognized. The good news is, the means to prevent and heal disease seems to be right in front of us; it's in our food. Quite frankly, our food choices can either kill us - which mounting studies say that they are, or they can lift us right out of the disease process and into soaring health. In the next few months, I will share a series of interviews I've conducted with the preeminent doctors and nutritional researchers in the fields of their respective expertise. And here it is straight out: they are all saying the same thing in different ways and through multiple and varying studies: animal protein seems to greatly contribute to diseases of nearly every type; and a plant-based diet is not only good for our health, but it's also curative of the very serious diseases we face . Cancer On the subject of cancer, I've asked Dr. T. Colin Campbell, Professor Emeritus of Cornell University and author of the groundbreaking The China Study to explain how cancer happens and what we can do to prevent and reverse it. Dr. Campbell's work is regarded by many as the definitive epidemiological examination of the relationship between diet and disease. He has received more than 70 grant years of peer-reviewed research funding, much of which was funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), and he has authored more than 300 research papers. He grew up on a dairy farm believing in the great health value of animal protein in the American diet and set out in his career to investigate how to produce more and better animal protein. Troublesome to his preconceived hypothesis of the goodness of dairy, Dr. Campbell kept running up against results that consistently proved an emerging and comprehensive truth: that animal protein is disastrous to human health. Through a variety of experimental study designs, epidemiological evidence, along with observation of real life conditions which had rational biological explanation, Dr. Campbell has made a direct and powerful correlation between cancer (and other diseases and illnesses) and animal protein. Following is a conversation I had with him so that I could better understand the association. KF: What happens in the body when cancer develops? What is the actual process? TCC: Cancer generally develops over a long period of time, divided into 3 stages, initiation, promotion and progression. Initiation occurs when chemicals or other agents attack the genes of normal cells to produce genetically modified cells capable of eventually causing cancer. The body generally repairs most such damage but if the cell reproduces itself before it is repaired, its new (daughter) cell retains this genetic damage. This process may occur within minutes and, to some extent, is thought to be occurring most of the time in most of our tissues. Promotion occurs when the initiated cells continue to replicate themselves and grow into cell masses that eventually will be diagnosed. This is a long growth phase occurring over months or years and is known to be reversible. Progression occurs when the growing cancer masses invade neighboring tissues and/or break away from the tissue of origin (metastasis) and travel to distant tissues when they are capable of growing independently at which point they are considered to be malignant. KF: Why do some people get cancer, and other don't? What percentage is genetic, and what percentage has to do with diet? TCC: Although the initiated cells are not considered to be reversible, the cells growing through the promotion stage are usually considered to be reversible, a very exciting concept. This is the stage that especially responds to nutritional factors. For example, the nutrients from animal based foods, especially the protein, promote the development of the cancer whereas the nutrients from plant-based foods, especially the antioxidants, reverse the promotion stage. This is a very promising observation because cancer proceeds forward or backward as a function of the balance of promoting and anti-promoting factors found in the diet, thus consuming anti-promoting plant-based foods tend to keep the cancer from going forward, perhaps even reversing the promotion. The difference between individuals is almost entirely related to their diet and lifestyle practices. Although all cancer and other diseases begin with genes, this is not the reason whether or not the disease actually appears. If people do the right thing during the promotion stage, perhaps even during the progression stage, cancer will not appear and if it does, might even be resolved. Most estimates suggest that not more than 2-3 percent of cancers are due entirely to genes; almost all the rest is due to diet and lifestyle factors. Consuming plant based foods offers the best hope of avoiding cancer, perhaps even reversing cancer once it is diagnosed. Believing that cancer is attributed to genes is a fatalistic idea but believing that cancer can be controlled by nutrition is a far more hopeful idea. KF: You said that initially something attacks the genes, chemicals or other agents; like what? TCC: Cancer, like every other biological event--good or bad--begins with genes. In the case of cancer, gene(s) that give rise to cancer either may be present when we are born or, during our lifetimes, normal genes may be converted into cancer genes by certain highly reactive chemicals (i.e., carcinogens). Consider 'cancer genes' as seeds that grow into tumor masses only if they are 'fed'. The 'feeding' comes from wrongful nutrition. It's like growing a lawn. We plant seeds but they don't grow into grass (or weeds) unless they are provided water, sunlight and nutrients. So it is with cancer. In reality, we are planting seeds all of our lifetime although some may be present at birth, not only for cancer but also for other events as well. But this mostly does not matter unless we 'nourish' their growth. The chemicals that create these cancer genes are called 'carcinogens'. Most carcinogens of years past have been those that attack normal genes to give cancer genes. These are initiating carcinogens, or initiators. But more recently, carcinogens also may be those that promote cancer growth. They are promoting carcinogens, or promoters. Our work showed that casein is the most relevant cancer promoter ever discovered. Aside from chemicals initiating or promoting cancer, other agents such as cosmic rays (energetic particles) from the sun or from the outer reaches of space may impact our genes to cause them to change (i.e., mutate) so that they could give rise to cancer 'seeds'. The most important point to consider is that we cannot do much about preventing initiation but we can do a lot about preventing promotion. The initiating idea is fatalistic and outside of our control but the promotion idea is hopeful because we can change our exposure to promoting agents and reverse the cancer process, thus is within our control. KF: What exactly is so bad about animal protein? TCC: I don't choose the word "exactly" because it suggests something very specific. Rather, casein causes a broad spectrum of adverse effects. Among other fundamental effects, it makes the body more acidic, alters the mix of hormones and modifies important enzyme activities, each of which can cause a broad array of more specific effects. One of these effects is its ability to promote cancer growth (by operating on key enzyme systems, by increasing hormone growth factors and by modifying the tissue acidity). Another is its ability to increase blood cholesterol (by modifying enzyme activities) and to enhance atherogenesis, which is the early stage of cardiovascular disease. And finally, although these are casein-specific effects, it should be noted that other animal-based proteins are likely to have the same effect as casein. KF: Ok, so I am clear that it's wise to avoid casein, which is intrinsic in dairy (milk and cheese), but how is other animal protein, such as chicken, steak, or pork, implicated in the cause and growth of cancer? TCC: I would first say that casein is not just "intrinsic" but IS THE MAIN PROTEIN OF COW MILK, REPRESENTING ABOUT 87% OF THE MILK PROTEIN. The biochemical systems which underlie the adverse effects of casein are also common to other animal-based proteins. Also, the amino acid composition of casein, which is the characteristic primarily responsible for its property, is similar to most other animal-based proteins. They all have what we call high 'biological value', in comparison, for example, with plant-based proteins, which is why animal protein promotes cancer growth and plant protein doesn't. KF: Isn't anything in moderation ok, as long as we don't overdo it? TCC: I rather like the expression told by my friend, Caldwell Esselstyn, Jr., MD, the Cleveland Clinic surgeon who reversed heart disease and who says, "Moderation kills!" I prefer to go the whole way, not because we have fool-proof evidence showing that 100% is better than, say, 95% for every single person for every single condition but that it is easier to avoid straying off on an excursion that too often becomes a slippery slope back to our old ways. Moreover, going the whole way allows us to adapt to new unrealized tastes and to rid ourselves of some old addictions. And finally, moderation often means very different things for different people. KF: Are you saying that if one changes their diet from animal based protein to plant-based protein that the disease process of cancer can be halted and reversed? TCC: Yes, this is what our experimental research shows. I also have become aware of many anecdotal claims by people who have said that their switch to a plant-based diet stopped even reversed (cured?) their disease. One study on melanoma has been published in the peer-reviewed literature that shows convincing evidence that cancer progression is substantially halted with this diet. KF: How long does it take to see changes? TCC: It is not clear because carefully designed research in humans has not been done. However, we demonstrated and published findings showing that experimental progression of disease is at least suspended, even reversed, when tumors are clearly present. KF: Consider a person who has been eating poorly his whole life; is there still hope that a dietary change can make a big difference? Or is everything already in motion? TCC: Yes, a variety of evidence shows that cancers and non-cancers alike can be stopped even after consuming a poor diet earlier in life. This effect is equivalent to treatment, a very exciting concept. KF: This is sounding like it's a cure for cancer; is that the case? TCC: Yes. The problem in this area of medicine is that traditional doctors are so focused on the use of targeted therapies (chemo, surgery, radiation) that they refuse to even acknowledge the use of therapies like nutrition and are loathe to even want to do proper research in this area. So, in spite of the considerable evidence--theoretical and practical--to support a beneficial nutritional effect, every effort will be made to discredit it. It's a self-serving motive. KF: What else do you recommend one does to avoid, stop, or reverse cancer? TCC: A good diet, when coupled with other health promoting activities like exercise, adequate fresh air and sunlight, good water and sleep, will be more beneficial. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. For help on how to lean into a plant based diet, check out my blog post here; and for recipes click here. For more information about diet and cancer, visit tcolincampbell.org. This Blogger's Books from Amazon indiebound The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss by Kathy Freston * Health * chronic conditions * Diet * Cáncer I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... 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[trans.gif] Mindfulness Meditation May Soothe Inflammation [trans.gif] Presidential Health Lessons: The Obamas' Greatest Health... [trans.gif] Start With Heart: 3 Steps To A... [trans.gif] Preventing and Treating Influenza With Natural Medicines [display_comments_title.gif] * Comments * 485 * Pending Comments * 0 * View FAQ Comments are closed for this entry Community Notice: We've made some changes to our badge program, including the addition of our newest badge: Community Curator. View All Favorites Bloggers Recency | Popularity Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) CindyAustinInLA 1 Fans 04:04 PM on 11/06/2009 I’m a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this DVD that features Kathy Freston called “The Path of Wellness & Healing” at a conference and it’s the best resource i have EVER seen for anyone with breast cancer or their families. My husband was given SO MANY BOOKS and who has the time to read when you’re dealing with something like this? This DVD was a one-stop shop that walks you through the entire bc experience with celeb survivors like Sheryl Crow and Christina Applegate and the world’s greatest doctors like Deepak Chopra and Dean Ornish. You’ll learn, you’l be inspired, you’ll probably cry and you might even laugh! Check it out!!! http://breastcancerdvd.org. CindyAustinInLA: Iâm a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/CindyAustinInLA/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_34079828.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 01:46 AM on 11/07/2009 That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. Everyone should watch it. Then it gives you access to other related videos that you cannot find elsewhere. Here is a University of California video about cancer and vitamin D. It shows that the latest research demonstrates that vitamin D can greatly reduce cancer rates including breast cancer. If enough people watch this video, it can greatly reduce the cancer that exists. It shows that the amounts of vitamin D needed to greatly reduce your chance of getting cancer is much more than the amount needed to prevent rickets or bone problems. It also tells how to find out just how much you need. It also has side effect of lowering your chances of getting the flu. You can even get free vitamin D from sunlight. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQ-qekFoi-o&feature=player_embedded# whizkid7: That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_34106139.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Jamsco 0 Fans 07:31 PM on 10/30/2009 I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has been shown to be healthier than starving yourself on plant leaves and flaxseeds. My dad was diagnosed with stage 1 colon cancer and did the Budwig Protocol without orthodox treatments and was dead in a year. I believe the war on cancer by the establishment is a joke, there are effective cancer treatments other than chemo and radiation, (Ronald Reagan was a good example). You should avoid sugars as well when diagnosed with cancer. I also believe many of these natural cure websites are ran by left-wing extremists with pro-animal, anti-corporation agendas(except when they make money of course). Ancient people, native tribes, eskimos were all fish and meat eaters(omnivores). According to the quacks you should only eat raw fruits and vegetables, nothing else! Meat and fish with fruits and vegetables is healthy with exercise. Increased chemicals in foods, water, meats, shampoos, ect i beleive are the real culprits in rising cancer rates. These alternative quacks make big money themselves with their water ionizers, supplements, ect. Be careful of these plant-based diet claims, some of these treatments have only 5% cure rates. Many alternative claims contradict each other if you study them. Jamsco: I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33700928.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 09:25 AM on 11/04/2009 Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as much as one person being cured by an alternative cure. They both mean nothing except to make you prejudiced against alternative medicine. For example if a fat person killed my father, then I may become prejudiced against fat people. The Eskimos have an average life span of only 60 years. John Hopkins Medical School says that cancer is a disease of many factors. They have broccoli sprouts in food stores that they have patented by making them extra high in sulforophane-- a cacner fighting phytochemical. Their Brassica Foundation is studying plants to use for cures for cancer and other diseases. As far as many factors, that means the pollution from the air, the pollution in your house and many other things can affect cancer. For example someone who does not smoke can get lung cancer from second hand smoke. http://www.graviolaleaves.com There is a University of California video on youtube about cancer and vitamin D. It show that vitamin D is very effective at preventing cancer according to recent studies. whizkid7: Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_33919345.html History | Permalink | Share it Jamsco 0 Fans 02:41 PM on 11/04/2009 You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against alternative cures. I said the governments war on cancer is a joke. The reason for my post is to expose the people and websites behind this vegetarian movement being pushed down our throats. Many studies contradict other studies. Vegans will say things that are true and leave out many other things that are true that don't support what they say. I rarely see omnivores attacking vegetarians, it is always the other way around. If your way is so great why are many types of cancers and other illnesses more common with vegetarians. Why do vegetarians still make up about 35% of all cancer diagnosis' even though there are fewer of them in society? The omnivores with the "cancer rates", yous' don't consider other lifestyle factors that i'm sure contribute to them getting various ailments. This vegetarian agenda is about a much broader agenda to push their extremist left-wing agenda and to eventually restrict what we eat, to ban guns and hunting, and their anti-capitalist agenda. Jamsco: You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33941923.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. There are More Comments on this Thread. Click Here To See them All spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… KJcured 1 Fans 10:08 AM on 10/28/2009 I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. In Feb. of this year I was diagnosed with STAGE IV IDC breast cancer: multiple tumors in my right breast, multiple tumors in the lymph nodes of my right arm pit, multiple tumors behind my sternum and a large cancerous mass in the bone of my sternum. I began eating mostly fruits & veggies in March of this year and as of my latest PET scan in August, the mass in the bone of my sternum is GONE, the tumors behind my sternum are gone and I'm down to a single much reduced tumor in my right breast and a single much reduced tumor in my right arm pit! I have had no chemo, radiation or other chemical treatment. I am proud to say that we are ALL capable of curing our own disease... with information! Thanks to the author for spreading this life saving news. KCB / Fayetteville, Georgia KJcured: I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/KJcured/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_33549468.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 06:53 PM on 10/12/2009 I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on this article and I find that the level of misunderstood, misinterpreted comment alarming. It is clear to me that most folks really do not have any basic grounding in science. Campbell's work in the 1980s - BEFORE he emabrked on the China study showed that the major protein in cow's milk - CASEIN - is a promoter of cancer! Its is NOT a carcinogen in its own right. Then there was a thread about Kefir ( a fermented milk product and one of many from the Balkans and Eastern Europe). Somehow the writer has got the idea that casein is OK after all - its in Kefir and the longevity of people in the Balkans shows its OK. A quick Google Scholar seacrch will get you to the research. Casein is digested by the bacteria in kefir. Go back and read Cambpells book. Get your science correct! renew2: I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32689809.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 08:10 AM on 10/11/2009 I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have started on the crits. I am hardly surprised at the crits - Campbell is reporting on stuff that is controversial to say the very least. I do not intend to comment on his credibility nor on the crits but offer this. We evolved as hunter gatherers and as such we would have eaten a diet that contained the occasional meat, nuts, berries, fruit and any other plant based material found ( by trial and error) to be non-toxic. This would have gone on for millenia. I venture to suggest that at no time along this pathway did we consume such large quantities of milk other than that delivered via breast feeding. If cow's milk casein is playing an unwanted role in cancer it might well be because of its "recent" appearance in our diet. renew2: I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32610577.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 01:09 AM on 09/29/2009 (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do find them useful as a lifestyle study subgroup compared to the general population). One article claims SVA's live to an average age of 88: here is a press story: http://www.chicagotribune.com/topic/sns-health-aging-centenarians,0,300 9292.story?track=rss-topicgallery. That is a 28 year difference compared to the 80% meat/fat diet Inuit. By the way, I do work in the health field serving the native "Indian" population. My experience tells me some significant changes need to be made in their diet and lifestyle - of great concern is the incredible epidemic in obesity related type II diabetes (reaching 80-100% of the adult population in some tribes), significant problems with heart disease, and in the increased rate of cancer compared to the general population. The natives of today do not look at all the same as their elders in the old turn of the century black and white photographs! Here is another link on a 2001 study: http://lifetwo.com/production/node/20070107-longevity-seventh-day-adven tists-life-expectancy Note on the above study - the life expectancy comparing vegetarian SVA vs. non-vegetarian SVA's. The difference is minimal based on diet, although statistically significant...2-2.5 years. Other lifestyle differences have the greater impact (9 years or so) - controlled weight vs. obesity, daily exercise or not, smoking history, and a daily bowl of nuts (LOL). Cerrec: (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828831.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 06:11 PM on 09/28/2009 Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. No study showed that with meat. There was no mention of the 500,000 people study that showed that meat causes cancer. http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/03/23/healthmag.red.meat.lifespan/index. html Chuck_Bluestein: Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31804828.html History | Permalink | Share it PublickStews 0 Fans 08:34 PM on 09/28/2009 Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? That study doesn't isolate the variable at all. It simply lumps everyone together based on meat consumption. Gee, you think there is a chance that the people who ate the most bacon and sausage ALSO ate lots of other crappy foods, and probably didn't eat a lot of vegetables and fruits, and probably ate in caloric excess? That study is completely meaningless. All it tells us is what we already know: that eating McDonalds instead of whole foods is bad for you. All these nonsense, anti-meat studies have a fatal flaw. They all rely on the false assumption that people with either eat lots of meat and no vegetables, or no meat and lots of vegetables. The best diet to prevent disease and avoid obesity is lean meat, lots of vegetables, and whole grains. The worst diet is processed garbage and American fast food. Most "plant based" diets fall somewhere in between. PublickStews: Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31814807.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 05:53 PM on 09/30/2009 That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) that is one of the 27 National Institutes of Health (NIH). So I do know what it means to isolate one variable. This study cost a great deal of money and was with half a billion people. Just kidding. It was only with half a million people. Right after it was done, it was all over the TV news. So you are saying that you are right and they are wrong. Well actually on this post, I started a thread (I am GINKGO on it) that complained about the same thing and said that if you change more than one variable then you do not know what caused the change. Now I had many people disagree with me, as you can see by looking at it. So what did I do? I gave them website after website after website that explained that exact thing-- called the scientific method. http://www.stevepavlina.com/forums/health-fitness/33137-most-health-pro blems-caused-lack-intelligence.html But then there are no phytochemicals in animal foods whereas plant foods contain thousands of phytochemicals like resveratrol (in dark grapes), lycopene (in tomatoes and watermelon) and sulphoropahane that is in broccoli sprouts. They have already identified over 900 phytochemicals, but who is counting? Chuck_Bluestein: That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31948770.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PublickStews 0 Fans 05:02 PM on 09/28/2009 Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, knee-jerk hippie readers who watch Oprah and shop at Whole Foods. Since Preston has written a book about "cleansing" (one of the biggest buzzwords in new age nonsense), this isn't surprising. Nowhere in the article does Preston acknowledge that Campbell's work has been widely criticized, or that his data barely matches up with his pronouncements. Nowhere do they mention that whey protein has been shown to have a protective effect, which throws his generalizations into question. And nowhere does she address the fact, documented by countless anthropologists, that indigenous hunter-gatherer societies like the Alaskan Inuit (who consumed a diet almost wholly comprised of animal protein, with 80% of calories coming from fat) had microscopic rates of cancer and heart disease. The American diet is deeply flawed, but it's not because of animal protein. If your diet consists mainly of lean meat, vegetables, and whole grains, and you are not eating in caloric excess, you are not at high risk for cancer or heart disease. To equate someone who eats chicken breasts and broccoli with someone who devours Big Macs on a regular basis is just plain intellectually dishonest. PublickStews: Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31799360.html History | Permalink | Share it Cerrec 0 Fans 01:08 AM on 09/29/2009 The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular disease increases with age, statistically accelerating after the 5th decade of life. The average lifespan of the Inuit population group is sixty, which is significantly eight years less than the Canadian average. So, those who think the Inuit are doing something right...you might want to rethink this. Here is a link - posting current dietary/lifesytle gov guidelines in the prevention of the above: http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=15&doc_id=5620&nbr=379 0 Cerrec: The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828822.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… seanpcooper 0 Fans 04:17 PM on 09/28/2009 HEY – read this! For the past 1.5 years or so I have inadvertently used myself as somewhat of a test bed that has pitted the low fat, plant based (high carbohydrate) diet against the Atkins, low carb, lifestyle. I say “lifestyle” because it is not a diet. I didn’t need to loose weight I was just concerned about high cholesterol. I first bought the China study as well as Dr. Caldwell Esselstyn’s book and followed them religiously for about 8 months. Everything was low fat (or non fat) plant based and absolutely no meat or dairy or even fish. Well after 8 months, I came down with Type 1 Diabetes! The carb load was so great that my pancrease crapped out on me. There are new studies now (google them) noting that a low fat diet equates to a high carb diet and that often ends up in Diabetes. My sugar levels were off the chart. I felt like suing Dr. Esselstyn and Campbell. I quickly droped the diet and Bought Dr. Bernsteins book about Diabeties. His approach was more or less that of Atkins or the Edeas’ Protein Power. My sugar levels were quickly brought down and in line with a “normal” non diabetic and what’s better – my cholesterol improved dramatically – go figure! I will never go back to “low fat” plant based. Basically it is pretty simple: my body now burns fat (yes bacon fat) instead of sugar (from bread). Interveiw Gary Taubes...please! seanpcooper: HEY â read this! For the past 1.5 years or http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/seanpcooper/a-cure-for-cancer-eati ng_b_298282_31795858.html History | Permalink | Share it Alvarask 419 Fans 11:56 PM on 09/28/2009 Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet or you will overload your pancreas. I did this to myself for years. I now understand that I need to eat meat WITH some animal fats to help regulate my blood sugar, while limiting white starches like rice and potatoes (I`m learning to use them more as a garnish than as a third or more of the meal), plus as many fruit and vegetables as my body tells me it wants when it has neither low nor high blood sugar. I had to work this out for myself. No doctor helped. Alvarask: Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Alvarask/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31826193.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… HUFFPOST SUPER USER rnm 52 Fans 10:34 PM on 10/04/2009 Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else was going on with you and how you got it has absolutely nothing to do with what you are proposing here. Please go do some very careful research on all of this because you are speaking out of complete ignorance on a plant based diet. TOTAL IGNORANCE.... rnm: Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/rnm/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_298 282_32216706.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… JamesNYC 8 Fans 03:18 PM on 09/28/2009 This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein causes cancer. It simply claims over and over again that there is overwhelming evidence. What journal are these findings published in? JamesNYC: This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/JamesNYC/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31791334.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER YeWight 94 Fans 01:12 PM on 09/28/2009 China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific scrutiny over the years, placing in doubt many of its conclusions. The study, nevertheless, had an interesting approach and design, but many flaws. You can research the subject for yourself, but here's just one article to tickle your fancy: http://www.babushkaskefir.com.au/historyofkefir.html The above is something that radically contradicts China Study casein claims. People in the Caucasus mountains are known to be some of the healthiest, longest living on the planet. The problem is - their diet is heavily based on a dairy product (kefir), which according to the China Study is bound to kill you (prematurely). Go figure. What will more than likely determine your future is in your genes, not so much in your diet. I have several nonagenarians in the family whose diet had always been heavy on dairy and meat and who happen to live long and healthy lives. And they are not an isolated example. Over the years, I have come across a number of families and individuals with similar histories and similar outcomes. YeWight: China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/YeWight/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_31782513.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… huntleyrussell 154 Fans 12:25 PM on 09/28/2009 Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect on cancer in our society because we consume so much of it. The average American consumes far more protein than required to meet our daily nutritional requirements (as much as 3 to 4 times as much in certain parts of the country). Protein is essentially for muscle growth, however the level or protein intake for Americans suggest we are all body builders, which we are not. Therefore, the excess protein in our diet becomes stored, primarily as fat, as our bodies are not able to use it all for growth. As cancer cells mutate, they require fuel to grow and expand. Eating the amount of meat we do, all of the excess fuel in our bodies provides a volatile situation for the growth of cancer. All of this is complicated exponentially by the use of hormones and the improper feeding of animal protein to our livestock, which pollutes a vast amount of meat and dairy products in the United States. A vegetarian diet provides the proper daily nutritional intake, as well as decreasing the risk of cancer by eliminating the fuel for its growth. huntleyrussell: Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/huntleyrussell/a-cure-for-cancer-e ating_b_298282_31779366.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PaleoMan 1 Fans 11:27 AM on 09/28/2009 I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, and his data on animal protein and cancer. While the link between casein and cancer seemed fairly well established, it seemed like much more of a leap to conclude that all animal protein causes or promotes cancer and there seemed to be little scientific support for this broader conclusion. Granted, some data on processed meats supports an increased cancer risk, but that might be explained by the nitrites and processing. There is a little known self published book written by DeLamar Gibbons, MD, who practiced medicine in the Four Corners Region on the Navajo Reservation for many decades. The book is entitled, Their Secrets: Why the Navaho Indians Never Get Cancer. Gibbons insisted that he had reviewed the records of 25,000 admissions to the Monument Valley Hospital and several other hospitals as well in outlying communities for the decades in question and had not found a single instance of a Navajo who practiced traditional taboos ever getting cancer of any kind. Gibbons sought to explore the differences that might account for the negligible cancer rates in traditional living Navajos. He found that dairy products were avoided. But grassfed meat was eaten in abundance, especially lamb and mutton. And grassfed meat is very high in conjugated linoleoic acid (CLA), which inhibits development and growth of cancer. In any event, the Navajos in question had anything but a vegan or vegetarian diet. PaleoMan: I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PaleoMan/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31775784.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER simplify 272 Fans 12:17 PM on 09/28/2009 Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. simplify: Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/simplify/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31778827.html History | Permalink | Share it photo multi LA 32 Fans 05:24 PM on 09/28/2009 I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned about what other people are eating... Since I've became a vegetarian you wouldn't believe the amount of backlash I have received from meat eaters about my eating choices.. People eat meat around me all the time and I don't criticize them.. multi_LA: I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/multi_LA/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31801119.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:51 AM on 09/28/2009 Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high fat dietary choices which are counter to our past million years of evolution and I believe we are suffering from this disparity. We have a coming disaster approaching us at one generation speed...a huge diabetes/obesity epidemic that will cost us billions of dollars to "doctor" without preventing/curing - out of the 1/3 children predicted to "go" type II diabetic, a sizable percentage will need dialysis 3x weekly as adults to survive! This is a billions dollar proposition, so something is going to have to change - we can't go down that road, folks. It was assumed (once) that the developement of agriculture in human society was a positive development leading towards increased health/longevity in the population...that assumption has been proved false...the roaming hunter/gather lifestyle has been proven to be better. Homo S. once had to be extremely active in order to survive...we were lean, mean, fighting machines...now we pack ourselves into a suv, drive to Walmart, walk around with a shipping cart, fill it to the brim, pack it home, and pack it in...while we sit front side to a tv/computer. Having said this, going out to my greenhouse for some fresh tomatoes, basil, and swiss chard....and it's time for me to go out for a long walk and pick up some wild pine nuts....and a brown trout or two... Good luck my fellow primates! Cerrec: Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31771059.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:49 AM on 09/28/2009 There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with mainland native americans, who presently suffer high rates of diabetes, heart disease, and obesity on our "modern world diet". When they have returned to their traditional diet/food gathering lifestyle = fewer calories, greater activity, less saturated fat ....basically pinenuts, seed grass, wild plants, minimal wild lean meat etc. there has been a statistically significant drop in signs of disease processes compared to their "modern lifestyle compatriots". What we have going on is far more complex than simply meat vs. vegan diets, although I think meat/dairy based diets have significant health issues. I would propose that the healthiest diet would be omnivorous tilted towards plants/seeds w/minimal amount of lean wild grown meat and minimal dairy - as close to possible to our 1 million year old natural diet that we are biologically adapted for (take away the extremes of Inuit/Alaskan native artic tundra). Noted are these human phys characteristics - relatively small jaw w/ small caninines, plant/seed grinding molars (not shearing molars as in predatory meat eating animals), a small stomach w/moderate ph acid & a long intestinal tract designed for extracting optimum amount of nutrition (calories) from plant based foods. Cerrec: There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31770977.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) new comment(s) on this entry — Click to refresh spinner Loading comments… TAKE CARE OF YOUR SMILE Powered By ZocDoc Sponsor Generated Post * 9 Resolutions You Shouldn't Have Made For 2013 (And What To Do About Them Now) + Quick Read | + Comments (18) | + 01.15.2013 FOLLOW US * Facebook * Twitter * Apple * Android * Blackberry * Email * Rss Connect with your friends Check out stories you might like, and see what your friends are sharing! [facebook_promo_connect.png?3] Most Popular on Healthy Living Winter Comfort Foods Lighten Up! 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All rights reserved. * Part of AOL Lifestyle Quantcast HuffPost Lightbox #Grasscity.com Forums RSS Feed Grasscity.com Forums - Indoor Marijuana Growing - RSS Feed Grasscity.com - the best counter-culture community User Name User Name_ Password __________ Log in * > register! * > lost your password * grasscity shop * grasscity community * smoking and usage * chill out zone * marijuana cultivation * marijuana news and discussions * Forum Help Blogs Recent Entries Best Entries Best Blogs Blog List Search Blogs Go Back Grasscity.com Forums > MARIJUANA CULTIVATION > Indoor Marijuana Growing Reload this Page why is my plant taking forever to grow? Register Blogs FAQ Photo Gallery Calendar Search Today's Posts Mark Forums Read Notices Grasscity.com 10% Discount Like us on Facebook for up to date news regarding product updates, Grasscity discount coupons, forum news, competitions and give aways. Keep in touch with Grasscity via your favorite social network. 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My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe Reply View First Unread View First Unread LinkBack Thread Tools Search this Thread #1 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:45 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe a foot. i super cropped one time and i accidently topped her. i had ph issuse which made fan leafs curl in and pretty much die so i pulled them off. im using FFHF 150hps light and i just trans planted maybe a week ago to a 3 gallon pot. when i transplanted i think it was root bound and i removed the lower 2 branches to feed the top 2 node sites. what is wrong? did i put to much stress on her? and im using fox farm nutes Reply With Quote #2 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:47 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ and i fixed my ph issuses Reply With Quote #3 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:50 PM kenny357 is offline kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 Registered User kenny357's Avatar Join Date: Dec 2010 Posts: 117 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ What size pot did you start in? Let the roots fill out that new pot a bit and she'll probably blow up. Reply With Quote #4 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:35 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. Reply With Quote #5 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:43 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ you waited way to long on transplant and thats your problem. Your canopy can only grow as much as the roots grow my friend. I transplant to a 5 gallon wide after 1 week in the 1 gallon pot cause if you wait to long your plant wont grow. considering you just got to transplanting it you had Ph problems your plant is probably mad stressed. IMO scrap it and start over especially if you haven't started the flowering stage. It takes 3 weeks for my cutting to go from 4 inches to 15 inches in three weeks time with a 150 watt HPS with AN nutes. Even when I was using and LED for veg and fox farm nutes my plants would get over 15 inches in no more than four weeks. IMO it would be a waste of time to continue threw with the flower since it has struggled so much through the veg. so i say scrap it start over and you will be in a better position in four weeks my friends. little fyi I had to use almost full strength of fox farms trio and powders according to their schedule every watering instead of just two times a week, didn't burn it. Ph water to 6.2 as well and transplant at the most ten days after being in a one gallon pot suggest five gallon wide and if you can't do that get three gallon wide pots. Reply With Quote #6 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:46 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. there you go man it was root bound for all you know the roots could be wrapped all around each other which will cause problems later on in the grow. your plant is probably so stressed that it wont even start to grow in the new pot for a couple days to week. Reply With Quote #7 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:19 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Reply With Quote #8 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:31 PM Bkinboston is offline Bkinboston humbly walks among the Blades Bkinboston Registered User Bkinboston's Avatar Join Date: Jul 2012 Location: Boston/Brooklyn Posts: 67 Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Yea it should bounce back in a week , you might have to baby it until. Reply With Quote #9 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:42 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ will do thank you everyone!!!! Reply With Quote Reply << Previous Thread | Next Thread >> Thread Tools Search this Thread Show Printable Version Show Printable Version Email this Page Email this Page Search this Thread: ____________________ Go Advanced Search Posting Rules You may not post new threads You may not post replies You may not post attachments You may not edit your posts __________________________________________________________________ BB code is On Smilies are On [IMG] code is On HTML code is Off Trackbacks are On Pingbacks are On Refbacks are Off __________________________________________________________________ Forum Rules All times are GMT +1. The time now is 11:21 PM. 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Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Van Essen Banner Welcome to The Green Wall & Green Roof Source Plant Connection Unveils Largest Living Wall in Baltimore Click for Full Size View On September 28, a more than two thousand square-foot exterior G-O[2]^TM Living Wall was unveiled on the building façade of One East Pratt Street in Baltimore, making it the largest living wall in Maryland. The G-O[2]^TM Living Wall has some important features that will help advance the success of living architecture, including the use of a unique, cutting edge, remote monitoring system. This technology was first installed in another very large iconic living wall in Pittsburgh during a complete overhaul in May of 2012 that included an upgraded G-O[2]^TM Living Wall system, irrigation system, and state-of-the-art remote monitoring sensors provided by Plant Connection, Inc. This valuable data recorded in two of the largest exterior living walls in the United States will be studied and used to help inform and further advance the greater green wall industry as a whole. View Newsletter. American Cancer Society Hope Lodge G-O[2]^TM Living Wall Click for Full Size View Plant Connection had the wonderful privilege and honor to create a living wall at the American Cancer Society Hope Lodge, Jerome L. Greene Family Center in Manhattan. Hope Lodge wanted to expand on their outdoor terrace and provide guests the opportunity to connect with nature for therapeutic benefits. They felt the addition of a G-O[2]^TM Living Wall would enhance the space and further aid in creating a peaceful communal area. Thanks to their generous support, PNC sponsored the living wall, drawing inspiration from their iconic design at PNC Bank in Pittsburgh, PA. The PNC green wall planting design was originally created by Kari Elwell Katzander of Mingo Design. View Newsletter. Department of Environment and Natural Resources G-O2 Living Walls Click for Full Size View G-O[2]^TM Living Walls were used to help make the DENR building the "greenest" complex in Raleigh. The green walls represent one of many components of the Green Square Complex that illustrate the most current sustainable design strategies. The living walls were designed to be multidimensional, meaning they wrap around the wall sides. It is hoped that the Green Square Complex will serve as a national model of environmental efficiency and sustainability. View Newsletter. Canisius College G-O[2]^TM Living Wall Click for Full Size View Canisius College installed two 8' x 20' G-O[2]^TM Living Walls. The living walls greet visitors to Science Hall and are located in busy hallways between labs and classrooms. They add life and most importantly oxygen to the populated space, where students and professors may spend their entire day indoors. These green walls also act as a visual reminder that science and nature are infinitely intertwined. View Newsletter. NYU Law Goes Green with G-O[2]^TM Green Walls Click for Full Size View 22 Washington Square North is now the home of one of the Universitys greenest buildings, which received LEED Silver Certification. A 5-story G-O[2]^TM Green Wall of cascading plants provides the Law School with an innovative office environment. Set within a very small outdoor courtyard of less than 15 feet between the buildings, the green wall was designed to be enjoyed from inside. Instead of looking out to a blank brick wall, the offices on each of the floors now have a growing, green view mirroring their window. A glass elevator within the space offers an even greater vertical view, capturing each wall at different levels. Green Wall design by Plant Connection, Inc. Read NYU's Press Release. View Newsletter. The mgv pre-grown GroRoofs^TM modules are lightweight, affordable, and easy to install. Our pre-grown G-O[2]^TM Growall products can be used for interior or exterior vertical garden projects. We also offer green roof soil media and other green roof accessories. Call us today for help in planning your green roof or green wall project. Let our team of experts guide you through from concept to installation and maintenance of your next green roof or green wall. Stepables Banner Plant Connection Inc. are experienced growers and nursery representatives. Our 42-acre nursery in Eastern Long Island is home to larger, landscape-sized woody shrubs and trees. Proudly representing Quansett Nursery perennials, annuals, herbs, and Groundcovers. Van Essen Banner Riverhead, NY o Phone: 1-888-78PLANT o Fax: 631-722-8787 © 2013 Plant Connection, Inc. o Privacy Policy Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture The International Treaty has a new Website at www.planttreaty.org THE INTERNATIONAL TREATY ON PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE [arrowo.gif] official versions of the Treaty [arrowo.gif] video on the Treaty [arrowo.gif] signatures and ratifications [arrowo.gif] comments on compliance [arrowo.gif] Funding Strategy questionnaire [arrowo.gif] study on Compliance [arrowo.gif] Comments on compliance and the Funding Strategy, following the request of the Open-ended Working Group [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are crucial in feeding the world's population. They are the raw material that farmers and plant breeders use to improve the quality and productivity of our crops. The future of agriculture depends on international cooperation and on the open exchange of the crops and their genes that farmers all over the world have developed and exchanged over 10,000 years. No country is sufficient in itself. All depend on crops and the genetic diversity within these crops from other countries and regions. After seven years of negotiations, the FAO Conference (through Resolution 3/2001) adopted the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, in November 2001. This legally-binding Treaty covers all plant genetic resources relevant for food and agriculture. It is in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Treaty is vital in ensuring the continued availability of the plant genetic resources that countries will need to feed their people. We must conserve for future generations the genetic diversity that is essential for food and agriculture. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] What are "plant genetic resources for food and agriculture"? The Treaty defines them as "any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture". [arrowgr.gif] What are the Treaty's objectives? Its objectives are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security. [arrowgr.gif] What is the Multilateral System for Access and Benefit-Sharing? Through the Treaty, countries agree to establish an efficient, effective and transparent Multilateral System to facilitate access to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and to share the benefits in a fair and equitable way. The Multilateral System applies to over 64 major crops and forages. The Governing Body of the Treaty, which will be composed of the countries that have ratified it, will set out the conditions for access and benefit-sharing in a "Material Transfer Agreement". [arrowgr.gif] What are the conditions for access in the Multilateral System? Resources may be obtained from the Multilateral System for utilization and conservation in research, breeding and training. When a commercial product is developed using these resources, the Treaty provides for payment of an equitable share of the resulting monetary benefits, if this product may not be used without restriction by others for further research and breeding. If others may use it, payment is voluntary. [arrowgr.gif] How will benefits be shared? The Treaty provides for sharing the benefits of using plant genetic resources for food and agriculture through information-exchange, access to and the transfer of technology, and capacity-building. It also foresees a funding strategy to mobilize funds for activities, plans and programmes the help, above all, small farmers in developing countries. This funding strategy also includes the share of the monetary benefits paid under the Multilateral System. [arrowgr.gif] How does the Treaty protect Farmers' Rights? The Treaty recognizes the enormous contribution that farmers and their communities have made and continue to make to the conservation and development of plant genetic resources. This is the basis for Farmers' Rights, which include the protection of traditional knowledge, and the right to participate equitably in benefit-sharing and in national decision-making about plant genetic resources. It gives governments the responsibility for implementing these rights. [arrowgr.gif] Who benefits from the Treaty and how? All benefit, in many ways: [arrowo.gif] Farmers and their communities, through Farmers' Rights; [arrowo.gif] Consumers, because of a greater variety of foods, and of agriculture products, as well as increased food security; [arrowo.gif] The scientific community, through access to the plant genetic resources crucial for research and plant breeding; [arrowo.gif] International Agricultural Research Centres, whose collections the Treaty puts on a safe and long-term legal footing; [arrowo.gif] Both the public and private sectors, which are assured access to a wide range of genetic diversity for agricultural development; and [arrowo.gif] The environment, and future generations, because the Treaty will help conserve the genetic diversity necessary to face unpredictable environmental changes, and future human needs. [arrowgr.gif] When did the Treaty come into force? The Treaty came into force on 29 June 2004, ninety days after forty governments had ratified it. Governments that have ratified it will make up its Governing Body. At its first meeting, this Governing Body will address important questions, such as the level, form and manner of monetary payments on commercialization, a standard Material Transfer Agreement for plant genetic resources, mechanisms to promote compliance with the Treaty, and the funding strategy. [arrowgr.gif] What's next? Each country that ratifies will then develop the legislation and regulations it needs to implement the Treaty. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowo.gif] Official versions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [arrowo.gif] Video on the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [arab.gif] [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] Back to the Commission's Welcome page __________________________________________________________________ Agriculture 21 CGRFA Home Page [tag_logo.jpg]-Submit [funfacts_up.jpg]-Submit [treecareinfo_up.jpg]-Submit [faq_up.jpg]-Submit [mediasource_up.jpg]-Submit [findservice_up.jpg]-Submit [resources_up.jpg]-Submit [top_right_image.jpg]-Submit Tree Care Information [bottom_right_leaf.jpg]-Submit Skip Navigation Links Why Hire an Arborist Benefits of Trees Value of Trees Tree Selection Buying High Quality Trees Avoiding Tree and Utility Conflicts New Tree Planting Mature Tree Care Plant Health Care Palms Trees and Turf Proper Mulching Techniques Pruning Young Trees Pruning Mature Trees Why Topping Hurts Trees Insect and Disease Problems Recognizing Tree Hazards Avoiding Tree Damage During Construction Treatment of Trees Damaged by Construction Contact Us ____________________ Search Skip Navigation Links Home > Tree Care Information > New Tree Planting New Tree Planting Think of the tree you just purchased as a lifetime investment. How well your tree, and investment, grows depends on the type of tree and location you select for planting, the care you provide when the tree is planted, and follow-up care the tree receives after planting. Planting the Tree The ideal time to plant trees and shrubs is during the dormant season and in the fall after leaf drop or early spring before budbreak. Weather conditions are cool and allow plants to establish roots in the new location before spring rains and summer heat stimulate new top growth. However, trees properly cared for in the nursery or garden center, and given the appropriate care during transport to prevent damage, can be planted throughout the growing season. In tropical and subtropical climates where trees grow year round, any time is a good time to plant a tree, provided that sufficient water is available. In either situation, proper handling during planting is essential to ensure a healthy future for new trees and shrubs. Before you begin planting your tree, be sure you have had all underground utilities located prior to digging. If the tree you are planting is balled or bare root, it is important to understand that its root system has been reduced by 90 to 95 percent of its original size during transplanting. As a result of the trauma caused by the digging process, trees commonly exhibit what is known as transplant shock. Containerized trees may also experience transplant shock, particularly if they have circling roots that must be cut. Transplant shock is indicated by slow growth and reduced vigor following transplanting. Proper site preparation before and during planting coupled with good follow-up care reduces the amount of time the plant experiences transplant shock and allows the tree to quickly establish in its new location. Carefully follow nine simple steps, and you can significantly reduce the stress placed on the plant at the time of planting. 1. Dig a shallow, broad planting hole. Make the hole wide, as much as three times the diameter of the root ball but only as deep as the root ball. It is important to make the hole wide because the roots on the newly establishing tree must push through surrounding soil in order to establish. On most planting sites in new developments, the existing soils have been compacted and are unsuitable for healthy root growth. Breaking up the soil in a large area around the tree provides the newly emerging roots room to expand into loose soil to hasten establishment. 2. Identify the trunk flare. The trunk flare is where the roots spread at the base of the tree. This point should be partially visible after the tree has been planted (see diagram). If the trunk flare is not partially visible, you may have to remove some soil from the top of the root ball. Find it so you can determine how deep the hole needs to be for proper planting. 3. Remove tree container for containerized trees. Carefully cutting down the sides of the container may make this easier. Inspect the root ball for circling roots and cut or remove them. Expose the trunk flare, if necessary. 4. Place the tree at the proper height. Before placing the tree in the hole, check to see that the hole has been dug to the proper depth and no more. The majority of the roots on the newly planted tree will develop in the top 12 inches of soil. If the tree is planted too deeply, new roots will have difficulty developing because of a lack of oxygen. It is better to plant the tree a little high, 2 to 3 inches above the base of the trunk flare, than to plant it at or below the original growing level. This planting level will allow for some settling (see diagram). To avoid damage when setting the tree in the hole, always lift the tree by the root ball and never by the trunk. 5. Straighten the tree in the hole. Before you begin backfilling, have someone view the tree from several directions to confirm that the tree is straight. Once you begin backfilling, it is difficult to reposition the tree. 6. Fill the hole gently but firmly. Fill the hole about one-third full and gently but firmly pack the soil around the base of the root ball. Then, if the root ball is wrapped, cut and remove any fabric, plastic, string, and wire from around the trunk and root ball to facilitate growth (see diagram). Be careful not to damage the trunk or roots in the process. [new_tree_plant.rvsd.jpg] Fill the remainder of the hole, taking care to firmly pack soil to eliminate air pockets that may cause roots to dry out. To avoid this problem, add the soil a few inches at a time and settle with water. Continue this process until the hole is filled and the tree is firmly planted. It is not recommended to apply fertilizer at the time of planting. 7. Stake the tree, if necessary. If the tree is grown and dug properly at the nursery, staking for support will not be necessary in most home landscape situations. Studies have shown that trees establish more quickly and develop stronger trunk and root systems if they are not staked at the time of planting. However, protective staking may be required on sites where lawn mower damage, vandalism, or windy conditions are concerns. If staking is necessary for support, there are three methods to choose among: staking, guying, and ball stabilizing. One of the most common methods is staking. With this method, two stakes used in conjunction with a wide, flexible tie material on the lower half of the tree will hold the tree upright, provide flexibility, and minimize injury to the trunk (see diagram). Remove support staking and ties after the first year of growth. 8. Mulch the base of the tree. Mulch is simply organic matter applied to the area at the base of the tree. It acts as a blanket to hold moisture, it moderates soil temperature extremes, and it reduces competition from grass and weeds. Some good choices are leaf litter, pine straw, shredded bark, peat moss, or composted wood chips. A 2- to 4-inch layer is ideal. More than 4 inches may cause a problem with oxygen and moisture levels. When placing mulch, be sure that the actual trunk of the tree is not covered. Doing so may cause decay of the living bark at the base of the tree. A mulch-free area, 1 to 2 inches wide at the base of the tree, is sufficient to avoid moist bark conditions and prevent decay. 9. Provide follow-up care. Keep the soil moist but not soaked; overwatering causes leaves to turn yellow or fall off. Water trees at least once a week, barring rain, and more frequently during hot weather. When the soil is dry below the surface of the mulch, it is time to water. Continue until mid-fall, tapering off for lower temperatures that require less-frequent watering. Other follow-up care may include minor pruning of branches damaged during the planting process. Prune sparingly immediately after planting and wait to begin necessary corrective pruning until after a full season of growth in the new location. After you have completed these nine simple steps, further routine care and favorable weather conditions will ensure that your new tree or shrub will grow and thrive. A valuable asset to any landscape, trees provide a long-lasting source of beauty and enjoyment for people of all ages. When questions arise about the care of your tree, be sure to consult your local ISA Certified Arborist or a tree care or garden center professional for assistance. The PHC Alternative Maintaining mature landscapes is a complicated undertaking. You may wish to consider a professional Plant Health Care (PHC) maintenance program, which is now available from many landscape care companies. A PHC program is designed to maintain plant vigor and should initially include inspections to detect and treat any existing problems that could be damaging or fatal. Thereafter, regular inspections and preventive maintenance will ensure plant health and beauty. E-mail inquiries: isa@isa-arbor.com (c) 1998, 2004 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED JULY 2005 Developed by the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), a non-profit organization supporting tree care research around the world and is dedicated to the care and preservation of shade and ornamental trees. For further information, contact: ISA, P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826-3129, USA. E-mail inquires: isa@isa-arbor.com © 2007 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED SEPTEMBER 2005 News What is an Arborist and How Can You Find One? From Planet Green a Discovery Company MORE >> Green Parking II: Putting Parking Lots to Work Green parking lots are defined as those that are designed to do environmental work. Parking lots should be designed to reduce the use of energy, improve environmental quality and to ensure more healthy conditions for people. Further, parking lots should be planned and designed to reflect regional landscape types. Plant materials and other materials of construction must be used in ways that will support this objective. MORE >> NADF Hardiness Zone Map Find out the right tree to plant where you live MORE >> Hot Topics "Hot Topic" press releases fro the USDA newsroom ranging from current pest alerts for specific regions of the United States to new trends in disease prevention and tree and plant care. MORE >> Don't Move Firewood! [dmf-logo-281-px.jpg] Camping Season is fast approaching. Please remember to not transport firewood. Tree-killing insects and diseases can lurk in firewood. These insects and diseases can't move far on their own, but when people move firewood they can jump hundreds of miles. New infestations destroy our forests, property values, and cost huge sums of money to control. MORE >> National Tree Benefits Calculator Make a simple estimation of the benefits individual street-side trees provide. With inputs of location, species and tree size, users will get an understanding of the environmental and economic value trees provide on an annual basis. For more detailed information on urban and community forest assessments, visit the i-Tree website. MORE >> National Register of Big Trees Big trees are symbols of all the good work trees do for the quality of the environment-and our quality of life. MORE >> [leaf_red_round.gif] "I am the Lorax. I speak for the trees, for the trees have no tongues." - Dr. Seuss Resources New Tree Planting Brochure Available through the ISA Web store Planting and Pruning Education An educational DVD for homeowner associations, government entities, libraries, or realtors with demonstrations on proper planting and pruning. Available for purchase online at Rocky Mountain ISA Planting With a Purpose Knowing when, what, where, and how to plant is essential to a tree's life span. And if you want trees in your yard to be assets that continually appreciate in value, keep these important tips from the International Society of Arboriculture in mind before, during, and after planting a tree.MORE >> © International Society of Arboriculture 2009 P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826 Email comments & questions to isa@isa-arbor.com #prev next The Plant Cell Skip to main page content * HOME * ABOUT * SUBMIT * SUBSCRIPTIONS * ADVERTISE * ARCHIVE * CONTACT US Quick Search [advanced] Author: ____________________ (e.g. Smith, JS) Keyword(s): ____________________ Year: ____________________ Vol: ____________________ Page: ____________________ Go User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Sign In Sign In * Illumina « Previous Table of Contents Next Article » * © 1999 American Society of Plant Physiologists Plant Vacuoles 1. Francis Marty1 1. Laboratoire de phytoBiologie Cellulaire, UPR ES 469, Université de Bourgogne, BP47 870, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France 1. ↵1 E-mail fmarty{at}u-bourgogne.fr; fax 33-3-80-39-62-87. Next Section INTRODUCTION The vacuoles of plant cells are multifunctional organelles that are central to cellular strategies of plant development. They share some of their basic properties with the vacuoles of algae and yeast and the lysosomes of animal cells. They are lytic compartments, function as reservoirs for ions and metabolites, including pigments, and are crucial to processes of detoxification and general cell homeostasis. They are involved in cellular responses to environmental and biotic factors that provoke stress. In the vegetative organs of the plant, they act in combination with the cell wall to generate turgor, the driving force for hydraulic stiffness and growth. In seeds and specialized storage tissues, they serve as sites for storing reserve proteins and soluble carbohydrates. In this way, vacuoles serve physical and metabolic functions that are essential to plant life. Plant cell vacuoles were discovered with the early microscope and, as indicated in the etymology of the word, originally defined as a cell space empty of cytoplasmic matter. Technical progress has variously altered the operating definition of the plant vacuole over time. Today, definitions continue to be colored by the tools and concepts brought to bear in any given study. Indeed, the combination of microscopy, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology is fundamental to research into the plant vacuole. In this review, vacuoles are provisionally defined as the intracellular compartments that arise as a terminal product of the secretory pathway in plant cells. They are ontogenetically and functionally linked with other components of the vacuolar apparatus (i.e., vacuoles and those membranous bodies that are either committed to becoming vacuolar or have immediately completed a vacuolar function). Experimental evidence suggests that material within the vacuolar system in plants derives confluently from both an intracellular biosynthetic pathway and a coordinated endocytotic pathway. The biogenetic pathways include (1) sorting of proteins destined for the vacuole away from those to be delivered to the cell surface after transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway; (2) endocytosis of materials from the plasma membrane; (3) autophagy pathways for vacuole formation; and (4) direct cytoplasm-to-vacuole delivery. Ultimately, sorting and targeting mechanisms ensure that specific proteins are faithfully assigned to conduct the vacuolar functions. The reader is referred to other contributions to this issue (i.e., Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999) and to previous reviews (Herman, 1994; Okita and Rogers, 1996; Bassham and Raikhel, 1997; Marty, 1997; Robinson and Hinz, 1997; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998; Herman and Larkins, 1999) for detailed information on specific aspects of vacuole biology. Previous SectionNext Section THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES Plant cell vacuoles are widely diverse in form, size, content, and functional dynamics, and a single cell may contain more than one kind of vacuole. Although major morphological differences were recorded by the very first microscopists, it has been commonly assumed that all vacuoles have the same origin and belong to a common group. However, with improvements in cell fractionation and biochemical analyses as well as in the use of new molecular probes, it has become possible to characterize specialized vacuolar compartments in the cells from a variety of tissues (Hoh et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997; Swanson et al., 1998; Webb, 1999, in this issue). In most cells from the vegetative tissues of the plant body, the central vacuole occupies much of the volume and is essential for much of the physiology of the organism. Among the many functions of this organelle are turgor maintenance, protoplasmic homeostasis, storage of metabolic products, sequestration of xenobiotics, and digestion of cytoplasmic constituents. In regard to the latter function, vacuoles are acidic and contain hydrolytic enzymes analogous to the lysosomal enzymes of animal cells. The membrane, or tonoplast, of such vacuoles contains the vegetative-specific aquaporin γ-TIP (for tonoplast intrinsic protein; Höfte et al., 1992; Marty-Mazars et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Barrieu et al., 1998; see below). In some cell types, defense or signal compounds are stored in the vacuole, particularly within specialized cells located in strategically favorable tissues such as the leaf epidermis. As early as last century, it was observed that many pigments (e.g., anthocyanins) are localized in the vacuoles of epidermal cells from flowers, leaves, and stems. Recent findings suggest that the membranes of such specialized vacuoles contain specific ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters (Rea et al., 1998). In contrast, reserve tissues of seeds and fruit contain vacuoles specialized in the storage of proteins (Okita and Rogers, 1996; Müntz, 1998; see Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). The membrane of the protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) contains the seed-specific aquaporin α-TIP (Höfte et al., 1992; Paris et al., 1996; Swanson et al., 1998; see below). Storage proteins are also synthesized and accumulated in specialized vegetative cells in response to wounding and to developmental switches (Maeshima et al., 1985; Sonnewald et al., 1989; Staswick, 1990; Herman, 1994; Jauh et al., 1998). Distinctively, the membrane of the vegetative storage vacuoles contains the aquaporin ∂-TIP (Jauh et al., 1998; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998). In the endosperm of cereal grains, proteins accumulate in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–derived organelles of vacuole-like size (see below). A few recent studies show that distinct vacuoles may simultaneously function in the same cell. Two separate vacuolar compartments, defined by α-TIP and γ-TIP, occur together in the root tip cells of barley and pea seedlings, mature tobacco plants, as well as in the plumule cells of pea seedlings (Paris et al., 1996). Barley lectin in root tip cells is found within α-TIP–positive vacuoles but not in γ-TIP–positive vacuoles, whereas the barley acid cysteine protease, aleurain, is specifically contained within γ-TIP–positive vacuoles but is absent from α-TIP–positive vacuoles. Thus, α-TIP defines a storage vacuole in which proteins are protected against degradative enzymes, whereas γ-TIP defines a separate, acidic, lytic vacuole. As cells develop large vacuoles, these two compartments appear to merge because the marker membrane antigens, α-TIP and γ-TIP, colocalize to the same membrane, at least in certain regions of the vacuolar compartments (Paris et al., 1996). Two distinct vacuole types are similarly found in living protoplasts of barley aleurone (Swanson et al., 1998). In addition to PSVs, aleurone cells contain a second type of lytic organelle, designated as secondary vacuoles by the authors of this study. Although PSVs and secondary vacuoles are lytic organelles with acidic contents, it was suggested that the secondary vacuoles, which have many features typical of plant vacuoles, function as lysosomes and could be involved in the programmed death of aleurone cells (Swanson et al., 1998). Another example of the versatility of vacuoles comes from investigations of the motor cells of the pulvini from Mimosa pudica (Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997). The vacuole that occurs in the immature (nonreactive) motor cell is located near the nucleus, contains large amounts of tannins, and is believed to act as a Ca^2+ store. The “aqueous” vacuole that is additionally found in mature motor cells does not contain tannins, is much larger than the tannin-containing vacuole, and occupies a central position in mature cells. The changes in cell volume that are responsible for pulvini-mediated leaf movement result from massive water fluxes mainly across the membrane of the larger, aqueous vacuole, on which the γ-TIP aquaporin and the vacuolar-type H ^+-translocating ATPase (V-ATPase) are detected almost exclusively (for a review of membrane ATPases, see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Both vacuoles change shape to effect cell shrinkage. The tannin-containing vacuole forms interconnected tubules, whereas the aqueous vacuole develops membrane wrinkles. In any case, the tannin vacuole and the aqueous vacuole do not merge but rather coexist within the mature motor cell. Additionally, because vacuoles are highly dynamic organelles, often capable of transforming in terms of both form and function, several “generations” of vacuole may be found within a given cell. In the cells of developing pea cotyledons, for instance, two categories of vacuole are reported: a declining, vegetative γ-TIP–associated vacuole; and a newly formed, α-TIP–associated storage vacuole (Hoh et al., 1995). Moreover, in suspension-cultured cells subjected to sucrose starvation, protein degradation is supported by numerous active autophagic vacuoles that are present together with the large, more mature central vacuole (Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). After completion of autophagic digestion, the small vacuoles are subsequently incorporated into the central vacuole. However, when intracellular digestion is inhibited, autophagic vacuoles containing undigested substrates remain in the cytoplasm as residual bodies, apart from the large central vacuole. The diversity of function and form outlined in the above examples illustrates that the cytological definition of vacuoles is likely to cover several biochemically and physiologically distinct entities. Vacuoles, as dynamic organelles, can thus be viewed in the right perspective only if their dynamic nature itself is understood. In several instances, entities that may be variously defined according to different morphological, biochemical, and physical criteria may not necessarily correspond to distinct physiological units. Previous SectionNext Section BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES Until recently, our knowledge of the biosynthesis and maintenance of vacuoles was based largely on morphological observations. Technological breakthroughs over the past few years have advanced our understanding of vacuolar biogenesis to a more detailed molecular level. Resident vacuolar proteins as well as proteins destined for degradation are delivered to the vacuole via the secretory pathway, which includes the biosynthetic, autophagic, and endocytotic transport routes that are presented in Figure 1. The basic mechanisms that organize these routes in eukaryotes are highly conserved across phyla (see Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Early Secretory Pathway In plant cells, as in animal cells and yeast, anterograde transport of newly synthesized soluble as well as membrane proteins through the vacuolar pathway begins at the ER. Most soluble proteins destined for the vacuole are synthesized as precursors with a transient N-terminal signal peptide by membrane-bound polysomes. The nascent precursor form is efficiently targeted to the ER lumen. After their cotranslational translocation across the ER membrane, the secretory proteins are folded and subjected to early post-translational modifications. ER-resident proteins, such as the lumenal binding protein BiP (Denecke et al., 1991), assist newly synthesized polypeptides in acquiring their correct conformation. Proteins that fail to attain the correct three-dimensional structure are eventually degraded by a mechanism that does not involve the Golgi complex–mediated route to the vacuole. Alternatively, some proteins that are not properly folded in the ER are delivered back to the cytosol by reverse translocation across the ER (Pedrazzini et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998; see Vitale and Denecke, 1999, in this issue). Figure 1. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 1. A Working Model for Transport Pathways in the Vacuolar Apparatus. Seven basic pathways are used for the biogenesis, maintenance, and supplying of vacuoles. Pathway 1: entry and transport in the early secretory pathway (from ER to late Golgi compartments). Pathway 2: sorting of vacuolar proteins in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) to a pre/provacuolar compartment (PVC) via an early biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 3: transport from PVC to vacuole via the late biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 4: transport from early secretory steps (ER to Golgi complex; pathway 1) to the vacuole via an alternative route with possible material accretion from Golgi (indicated by the asterisk). Pathway 5: endocytotic pathway from the cell surface to the vacuole via endosomes. Pathway 6: cytoplasm to vacuole through autophagy by degradative or biosynthetic pathways. Pathway 7: transport of ions and solutes across the tonoplast. AV, autophagic vacuole; E, early endosome; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; PVC, pre/provacuolar compartment; TGN, trans-Golgi network. Secretory proteins that are inserted into or translocated across the ER membrane can contain sorting signals required for their targeting to and/or retention in almost any of the compartments along the secretory pathway. For some proteins, the target organelle is the ER itself, and these proteins are not transported further. All other proteins competent for transport along the secretory pathway are carried to the Golgi complex via a still elusive vesiculo-tubular intermediate compartment. Indeed, tubular continuities have been shown to form direct linkages between the ER and the Golgi complex. Consequently, tubular transport might occur in a direction tangential, rather than perpendicular, to the Golgi stacks, in a manner that differs, therefore, from that usually assumed to operate in animal and fungal cells. The Golgi complex has a pivotal role in the secretory pathway. In plant cells, it consists of a set of dispersed units (dictyosomes) surrounded by a proteinaceous matrix. Like its counterpart in animal cells, each morphological Golgi unit in the plant cell includes a Golgi stack and a trans-Golgi network (TGN; Marty, 1978; Staehelin and Moore, 1995; Dupree and Sherrier, 1998). The Golgi stacks consist of three discrete groups of cisternae (cis, medial, and trans) that can be defined by their distinct morphologies and by their cytochemical and biochemical properties. Covalent and conformational modifications of newly synthesized secretory proteins, which begin in the ER, are continued in the Golgi complex and post-Golgi compartments. As they are being processed, vacuolar proteins transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway together with proteins that are destined to be exported into the extracellular medium or delivered to the plasma membrane. Late Secretory Pathway—From TGN to Prevacuoles The TGN is a major branch point in the secretory pathway and is the site of multiple sorting events that separate proteins destined for exocytotic egress from those progressing to the vacuole. The TGN varies in size according to the specific function of the cell. Under the hypothesis that biogenetic and trafficking processes are modulated in response to specific cell requirements, comprehensive morphological studies have been performed in actively vacuolating cells. The processes involved in the formation of vacuoles and their partitioning during mitosis, for example, are conveniently studied in the differentiating cells of the root meristem. Figure 2 shows the partitioning of mitotic provacuole clusters into daughter cells. In cells in which new vacuoles are being formed, the TGN consists of a twisted, polygonal meshwork of smooth-surfaced anastomosing tubules extending from a central disk-shaped cisternal cavity facing the Golgi stack. Via lateral linkages, a single TGN might be shared by several Golgi units. Clathrin-coated blebs and local swellings containing internal vesicles can be observed along the tubules, and numerous vesicles budding from the TGN mediate the transport of biomolecules to the vacuole. Figure 2. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 2. Partitioning of the Vacuolar Apparatus during Mitosis. Distribution of mitotic provacuole clusters in vacuolating cells from the root meristem of horseradish. The vacuolar apparatus was selectively labeled by the zinc iodide–osmium reaction (see Marty, 1978). The specimen (3 μm thick) was examined without counterstain at 2.5 MV with a very high voltage (3 MV) electron microscope. Images were processed using Photoshop software (Adobe, San Jose, CA). Provacuoles are shown in yellow, Golgi complexes in red, and mitochondria and plastids in blue. The Prevacuolar Compartment The TGN-derived vesicles on the vacuolar pathway form an intermediate compartment between the late trans-Golgi sorting site and the vacuole. These vesicles have been collectively referred to as provacuoles because they act ontogenetically as the immediate progenitors of the vacuole. They also mediate transport between the ER/Golgi complex and the vacuole and thus take functional precedence in the path to the vacuole. On account of this succession, they can be said to act as a physiological prevacuolar compartment (PVC) for cargo proteins en route to the vacuole (Marty, 1978, 1997). Nascent provacuoles, budding from nodes of the TGN meshwork, have an average diameter (∼100 nm) distinctly larger than the diameter of the TGN tubules (∼15 nm). Rather quickly, the vesicular provacuoles extend into tubular provacuoles having roughly the same bore (100 nm) as the vesicles from which they derive. Their lumen is filled with vesicles that are presumably derived from microinvagination of their membranes (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The extensive tubular provacuoles in vacuolating cells may be an enhanced version of the ubiquitous PVC described in mammalian cells and yeast (Piper et al., 1995). The membrane proliferation results from a dynamic effect that would occur either if membrane flow out of the provacuole were slowed down or if the membrane input from the TGN and/or the endocytotic tributary were increased. Furthermore, the provacuolar compartment might be a critical junction in post-Golgi trafficking at which the endocytotic and vacuolar biogenetic pathways converge. Autophagy and Vacuolation As revealed by three-dimensional high-voltage electron microscopy, the formation of autophagic vacuoles begins with a striking sequence of provacuole tubulation that proceeds to enclose discrete volumes of cytoplasmic material (Marty, 1978, 1997). Figure 3 represents this sequence of events, whereby tubular provacuoles produce digitate extensions that form cagelike traps so as to sequester portions of cytoplasm. Adjacent bars of the cage then fuse in a zipperlike fashion and, through transient palmar connections, build a continuous and tight cavity around the segregated portion of cytoplasm. Sections through these ball-shaped structures are recognized as early autophagosomes (i.e., a cytoplasmic area encircled by a narrow ringlike cavity bounded by inner and outer membranes). Cytochemical studies show that the TGN, provacuoles, and autophagosomes are acidic and contain lysosomal acid hydrolases. The cytoplasm in the autophagosome is degraded after it has been totally closed off. It is speculated that the digestive enzymes are released from the surrounding cavity as the inner boundary membrane deteriorates. Upon completion of the digestive process, a typical vacuole is formed. The outer membrane, which remains impermeable to hydrolytic enzymes, confines digestive activities within the forming vacuole and becomes the tonoplast. Newly formed vacuoles can then fuse together to produce a few large vacuoles. Ultimately, facilitated transport of water through the tonoplast, mediated by γ-TIP aquaporins, results in rapid vacuole enlargement (Ludevid et al., 1992; Maurel, 1997). Figure 3. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 3. Autophagic Activity of Provacuoles. Sequential stages of cytoplasmic confinement by provacuoles involved in cellular autophagy. Tubular provacuoles (1 and 2) form cagelike traps (2 to 4) enclosing portions of cytoplasm of a cell from the root meristem of Euphorbia characias. Adjacent bars of the cages then fuse to build a continuous and tight envelope (central structure [4]) around segregated portions of cytoplasm. Samples were processed as described in the legend to Figure 2. Starvation-Induced Autophagy In response to starvation, autophagy is reinitiated in cells that are already vacuolated. The autophagic pathway is activated, for example, after sucrose deprivation of suspension-cultured cells (Chen et al., 1994; Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). Portions of peripheral cytoplasm are first sequestered in double membrane–bounded envelopes (through the process described above) and then eventually digested. The small vacuoles, thus newly formed in the cytoplasm, are finally incorporated into the central vacuole. It has been shown that the induction of cellular autophagy is controlled by the supply of mitochondria with respiratory substrate and not by the decrease in the concentration of sucrose and hexose phosphates (Aubert et al., 1996). Formation of autophagic vacuoles has been correlated with an increase in the rates of intracellular proteolysis (Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996) and a massive breakdown of membrane polar lipids (Aubert et al., 1996). As a degradative pathway, autophagy plays a central role in protein and organelle turnover. It has been implicated in vacuolation and cell differentiation, and it is critical for survival during stress conditions such as nutrient deprivation. It can also be exploited for biosynthetic purposes as a cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway, as occurs in yeast, and with regard to supplying PSVs (see below). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS Specialized cells in seeds and vegetative organs accumulate proteins that function primarily as reserves of amino acids. The most common storage proteins are the globulins, which are found in embryos, and the prolamins, which are unique to cereal endosperms. Most storage proteins, including globulins and some prolamins, have been shown to be transported to vacuoles via the Golgi complex (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Chrispeels, 1991; see also Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). However, studies on the assembly and transport of seed storage proteins in legumes and cereals have shown that reserve proteins can be sorted at diverse exit sites along the vacuolar pathway. As a result, proteins are stored in a variety of compartments specific to the plant species, tissue, stage of cell differentiation, and protein category. Golgi-Dependent and Golgi-Independent Routes to PSVs Pulse-labeling experiments, morphological and immunocytochemical studies, and biochemical analyses have provided compelling evidence for a Golgi-mediated route to the PSV in legumes and other dicots. Storage proteins are synthesized as precursors that are cotranslationally transferred into the lumen of the rough ER and transported via the Golgi apparatus into specialized vacuoles where proteolytic processing is usually needed to promote their stable storage. Whereas protein storage deposits are seldom observed in the lumen of the rough ER at the early stage of the transport pathway, condensed storage proteins are commonly detected in smooth-surfaced vesicles, ∼100 nm in diameter, in association with the cis-, medial-, or trans-cisternae of the Golgi complex (Hohl et al., 1996). Furthermore, three different types of vesicle are commonly found in close proximity to the Golgi area: vesicles that carry storage proteins, exocytotic vesicles containing cell wall polymers, and clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs). The existence of two different exit sites for vacuolar proteins at the Golgi complex and the utilization of “alternative” secretory vesicles suggest further variations to vacuole function (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). According to current views, vesicles containing storage proteins originate at the cis-Golgi cisternae, and proteins undergo maturation processes as they progress through the Golgi stacks up to the TGN, where they are sorted to the storage vacuoles (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). At the exit site, CCVs were found to bud off from the vesicles containing storage proteins. Subsequently, only the clathrin-free vesicles, but not the CCVs, are involved in the transport of soluble storage proteins to the vacuole. A different pathway recently has been suggested in cells from maturing seeds of pumpkin and castor bean (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998). In these cells, proglobulin and pro2S albumin were shown to be transferred from the rough ER to the PSV via large vesicles (200 to 400 nm in diameter). These large precursor-accumulating vesicles are distinct from the Golgi-derived vesicles but similar to the late protein bodies described in pea cotyledons (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). It was suggested that the core of storage proproteins contained in these large vesicles might derive directly from protein aggregates that are formed in the ER (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998); they accumulate proprotein precursors and ER-resident proteins such as BiP but not mature products. In maturing pumpkin cotyledons, where the vast majority of storage proteins are not glycosylated, the precursor-accumulating vesicles bypass the Golgi apparatus such that their transport is not inhibited by the carboxylic ionophore monensin. In contrast to pumpkin seeds, castor bean seeds contain storage glycoproteins with complex glycans. Their processing occurs in the Golgi complex. The Golgi-processed glycoproteins are subsequently incorporated into the ER-derived precursor-accumulating vesicles at the periphery of the core aggregates. Storage glycoproteins, together with other storage proteins, are ultimately transported by the mature vesicle as far as the PSV. However, the final steps of the transport pathway to the storage vacuole are still unknown. It was suggested that the incorporation of the precursors into PSVs could occur by membrane fusion or by autophagic engulfment of the vesicle into the vacuole. Autophagy and PSVs Developing legume cotyledons comprise a model system to study both the ontogenesis of the PSV and the intracellular transport of vacuolar reserve proteins (Chrispeels, 1991). In the parenchyma cells of maturing legume cotyledons, the very few large vegetative vacuoles become replaced by numerous PSVs. Ultrastructural studies indicate that the preexisting vegetative vacuoles of immature parenchyma cells are trapped by a newly developing smooth tubulo-cisternal membrane system that already contains storage proteins (Craig, 1986; Hoh et al., 1995). However, the origin of this new membrane system is not clearly understood. The trapped vegetative vacuoles disappear as the novel storage vacuoles gradually fill up with storage proteins (Hoh et al., 1995). During the process, the storage proteins aggregate as individual clumps against the tonoplast and cause it to protrude into the cytoplasm. By a budding process, the protruding protein masses, still surrounded by the tonoplast, become independent small storage vacuoles (membrane-bounded “protein bodies” [PBs]) dispersed in the cytoplasm. At later stages of cotyledon maturation, the budding process stops, and the main original storage vacuole, which continues to accumulate reserve proteins, transforms into a distinct category of large storage vacuole. A third type of storage protein reservoir is formed in the cells at the middle to late stages of seed maturation, before storage protein synthesis ceases. Storage proteins accumulate in smooth-surfaced cisternae and channels with terminal dilations. These swellings may detach and become independent spherical bodies without cisternal connections. Finally, in germinating legume seedlings, PSVs are replaced by a vegetative vacuole through yet another type of developmentally regulated sequestration and disposal of organelles. Local invaginations of the tonoplast and engulfment of cytoplasmic fragments, subsequently degraded in the PSV, have been described (Herman et al., 1981; Melroy and Herman, 1991). Storage Proteins in Cereals Cereal grains differ from legume seeds by accumulating the alcohol-soluble prolamins as storage proteins in endosperm cells (Shewry et al., 1995). Cereal prolamins, like legume globulins, are cotranslationally loaded into the lumen of the ER. In many cereals, including maize, rice, and sorghum, prolamins form dense, insoluble accretions, which are retained within the lumen of the ER and, as in the case of the legumes, termed PBs (Lending et al., 1988; Geli et al., 1994). In developing endosperm cells, PBs become enlarged as newly synthesized prolamins are acquired and assembled with the aid of protein disulfide isomerase and molecular chaperones such as BiP (Lending and Larkins, 1989; Boston et al., 1991; Li and Larkins, 1996). Prolamins of other cereals, including wheat, barley, and oat, on the other hand, accumulate in vacuoles together with globulins (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Levanony et al., 1992). Globulins are transported along the anterograde pathway via the Golgi complex to the vacuolar compartment, whereas prolamin PBs are incorporated into the vacuole by an autophagic process (Levanony et al., 1992). Several cytological observations have suggested that rather similar autophagic mechanisms might operate when transgenes encoding storage proteins from cereals are expressed in vegetative tobacco cells (Coleman et al., 1996; Bagga et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998). The transgene products form accretions in the ER, as in many storage cells in cereals, but the ER membrane–bounded PBs are subsequently captured by an autophagic process and delivered to the vegetative vacuole, where they are eventually proteolytically degraded. Interestingly, somewhat similar steps could be detected during the transport of storage proteins to storage vacuoles by large precursor-accumulating vesicles in normally developing cells (Levanony et al., 1992; Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998; see above). These results suggest that the cellular machinery of autophagy can be used for delivering cytosolic proteins and early membrane-bounded PBs to the vacuole, thus defining a biosynthetic cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway as occurs in yeast. The ontogeny of the compartments specialized in protein storage is thus diverse, and not all stores are (ontogenetically) homologous, although all belong to the vacuolar apparatus of plant cells. For a more detailed discussion of PSVs, see Herman and Larkins (1999), in this issue. Previous SectionNext Section ENDOCYTOSIS Endocytosis is defined as the uptake of extracellular and plasma membrane materials from the cell surface into the cell. Endocytosis has been characterized morphologically in plant cells in which both fluid-phase uptake and receptor-mediated internalizations have been visualized (reviewed in Low and Chandra, 1994; Marty, 1997; see also Battey et al., 1999, in this issue). Two distinct routes of internalization by clathrin-mediated endocytosis have been suggested to operate in plant cells: (1) from the plasma membrane to an endosomal compartment, including the partially coated reticulum, multivesicular bodies, TGN, and the PVC; and (2) from the plasma membrane to the PVC and the vacuoles (Low and Chandra, 1994). Novel intermediary structures arising from plasma membrane internalization have also been described as part of a compensatory recycling mechanism in actively secreting cells (Staehelin and Chapman, 1987). Rapid retrieval of plasma membrane to the cell interior, together with a fluid phase internalization of extracellular material, occurs in water-stressed cells (Steponkus, 1991; Oparka et al., 1993; Barrieu et al., 1999). Morphological studies of vacuolating cells by electron microscopy suggest that the endocytotic and biosynthetic vacuolar pathways converge at the provacuolar compartment before nascent autophagic vacuoles are formed (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The convergence point(s) between these pathways in already vacuolated cells is unknown, but it seems reasonable to hypothesize that the juncture could be at the prevacuolar compartment. Endocytotic vesicles and endosomes belong to the vacuolar apparatus, but their direct contribution to the formation of the vacuole remains uncertain. Whereas the vesicle-mediated internalization of plasma membrane has been documented in plant cells, the routes involved need to be precisely mapped by reliable tracers. A potential candidate is Tlg1p, a protein functionally homologous to the t-SNARE (see below) localized on a putative early endosome in yeast. Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS Vacuolar soluble proteins and membrane proteins alike travel through the early stages of the secretory pathway. Most probably, they are sorted away from proteins destined for delivery to the cell surface at the exit of the Golgi complex (see, e.g., Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Soluble proteins therefore require a sorting signal to tag them for vacuolar delivery after their egress from the Golgi complex; indeed, in the absence of such informational tags, they are secreted to the extracellular space. Three types of vacuolar targeting signals have been described (Chrispeels and Raikhel, 1992). Some vacuolar proteins (e.g., sporamin and aleurain) contain an N-terminal propeptide (NTPP) as a targeting determinant; others (e.g., barley lectin, phaseolin, tobacco chitinase, and Brazil nut 2S albumin) contain a C-terminal propeptide (CTPP), whereas some vacuolar proteins (e.g., phytohemagglutinin and legumin) contain a targeting signal in an exposed region of the mature protein. NTPP Signals The targeting determinants characterized in NTPPs from the barley cysteine protease aleurain (Holwerda et al., 1992) and from sweet potato sporamin (Nakamura et al., 1993) contain a conserved Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg amino acid sequence. This motif in the NTPP is necessary and sufficient for the sorting of the sporamin precursor to the vacuole (Nakamura et al., 1993; Matsuoka et al., 1995). Sporamin is delivered to the sink vacuole in cells from the tuberous roots of the sweet potato (Maeshima et al., 1985), whereas aleurain is sorted to a lytic compartment distinct from the PSV (Paris et al., 1996). CTPP Signals By contrast to NTPP signals, a vacuolar sorting consensus sequence has not been identified in CTPP targeting domains. Nevertheless, the CTPP was shown to be necessary and sufficient for the targeting of barley lectin to the vacuole (Bednarek and Raikhel, 1991; Matsuoka et al., 1995). The N-linked glycan of the CTPP in barley lectin is not necessary for sorting, although it modulates the rate of processing of the propeptide. Hydrophobic residues in the CTPP are important for the targeting of barley lectin (Dombrowski et al., 1993). Similar mutagenesis analyses have been performed to characterize the targeting signal of tobacco chitinase (Neuhaus et al., 1994). CTPPs from vacuolar proteins differ in length, and it was recently shown that a short CTPP from phaseolin contains information necessary for interactions with the vacuolar sorting machinery in a saturable manner (Frigerio et al., 1998). The barley lectin, phaseolin, and Brazil nut 2S albumin accumulate in PSVs, whereas tobacco chitinase is delivered to vacuoles of vegetative cells. Results indicate that more than one sorting mechanism might exploit the CTPP targeting signal and that transport of CTPP-containing proteins from the Golgi complex to the vacuoles involves more than one pathway (Matsuoka et al., 1995; Frigerio et al., 1998). Both CTPP- and NTPP-mediated vacuolar delivery also involve alternative structures and mechanisms, although NTPP and CTPP were found to be functionally interchangeable in directing proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1995). Internal Signals Other plant vacuolar proteins are synthesized without a cleavable vacuolar-targeting signal. Studies on phytohemagglutinin (PHA) from Phaseolus vulgaris (Tague et al., 1990) and legumin from Vicia faba (Saalbach et al., 1991) have demonstrated targeting information in exposed regions of the mature proteins, which are deposited in the PSVs of the reserve parenchyma cells of cotyledons. Strikingly, soluble proteins, such as PHA, and proteinase inhibitors, which are usually vacuolar, occasionally have been detected in the extracellular matrix, suggesting that the vacuolar targeting signals might not be recognized in all cells (Kjemtrup et al., 1995). Moreover, recent work on suspension-cultured cells showed that some soluble, fully processed, vacuolar hydrolases can be excreted into the medium under hormonal control. The exocytotic pathway for these “vacuolar” proteins would lead from either the vacuole or the PVC situated downstream of the last processing step (Kunze et al., 1998). Although short amino acid sequences of plant vacuolar proteins are sufficient to sort nonvacuolar proteins to the vacuole in yeast (Tague et al., 1990), plant proteins are sorted to the yeast vacuole by signals different from those recognized by plants, suggesting that the transport machinery is at least partially different between yeast and plants (Gal and Raikhel, 1994). Vacuolar membrane and intravacuolar soluble proteins are targeted to vacuoles by different mechanisms. Pulse–chase experiments and pharmacological studies on protoplasts from transgenic tobacco plants suggest that soluble proteins such as PHA and integral membrane proteins such as α-TIP reach the same destination by traveling through different paths (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). Signals in TIPs? Transport pathways for integral membrane proteins of the tonoplast have been investigated (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992; Jiang and Rogers, 1998). The vacuolar membrane α-TIP and γ-TIP are polytopic integral membrane proteins, with six membrane-spanning domains and both N and C termini located in the cytoplasm. In an early analysis of the targeting information contained in α-TIP, it was found that a polypeptide segment comprising the sixth membrane-spanning domain and the adjacent C-terminal, cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP is sufficient to target a nonvacuolar reporter protein to the tonoplast. In addition, the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail was not found necessary for the targeting of α-TIP in the same stably transformed tobacco cells (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992). More recently, the trafficking of a chimeric integral membrane reporter protein was analyzed in tobacco protoplasts (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). It was found that the transmembrane domain of the plant vacuolar sorting receptor BP-80 (see below) directs the reporter protein via the Golgi complex to the prevacuolar compartment, and attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of γ-TIP did not alter this traffic. By contrast, attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP prevented traffic of the reporter protein through the Golgi complex but caused it to be localized to vacuoles. It was thus concluded that there are two separate pathways to vacuoles for membrane proteins: a direct pathway followed by α-TIP from the ER to PSVs, and a separate pathway followed by γ-TIP via the Golgi complex and PVC to the vegetative lytic vacuole (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS Soluble vacuolar proteins are diverted away from the exocytotic pathway through a receptor-mediated process that leads to their delivery to the vacuole. Two independent approaches resulted in the identification of plant vacuolar sorting receptors (Kirsch et al., 1994; Ahmed et al., 1997). It was initially hypothesized that the Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg motif conserved in the NTPP vacuole-targeting determinant of aleurain and sporamin, two unrelated proteins, was likely to be recognized by a sorting receptor (Kirsch et al., 1994). Indeed, a protein of 80 kD, called BP-80, has been affinity purified from a lysate of CCVs from pea. It possesses all the features expected of a vacuolar sorting receptor. It is a type I integral membrane protein that is localized in the Golgi complex and in small vacuolar structures. These vacuolar structures are distinct from both α-TIP and γ-TIP vacuoles but are possibly analogous to prevacuoles. Several homologs have been cloned, and the sequences appear to be highly conserved in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants (Paris et al., 1997). An alternative approach led to the identification of an Arabidopsis receptor-like protein called AtELP (for Arabidopsis thaliana epidermal growth factor–like protein). This second approach was based on the use of known functional motifs present in many of the receptor proteins involved in clathrin-dependent intracellular protein sorting in mammalian and yeast cells (Ahmed et al., 1997). AtELP shares many common features with mammalian and yeast transmembrane cargo receptors. It is capable of in vitro interaction with the proteins of the TGN-specific AP-1 adaptor complex from mammals. It is located at the TGN, in CCVs, and on the PVC in the root cells of Arabidopsis. AtELP is highly homologous to BP-80, suggesting that it also may play a role in targeting proteins to the vacuole (Sanderfoot et al., 1998; see also Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Mechanisms recognizing the C-terminal or internal vacuolar sorting signals of soluble proteins have not been elucidated, and the identification of receptor-mediated pathways for membrane proteins is still in debate (see, e.g., Vitale and Raikhel, 1999). In addition to sorting receptors, other components of the vacuolar targeting machinery are being identified in plants. An interesting example is a V-ATPase activity associated with the Golgi complex, distinct from that of the tonoplast V-ATPase, and which is necessary for the efficient targeting of soluble proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1997; see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Previous SectionNext Section TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS Transport of soluble and membrane proteins in the secretory pathway is known to be mediated by the budding and fusion of transport vesicles (Rothman, 1994) and, in certain cell types or physiological situations, by cisternal progression and direct tubular linkages between different compartments (Pelham, 1998). As an early step in vesicular transport, budding involves coat proteins that assemble from the cytosol. CCVs, COPI and COPII-like vesicles, and “dense” vesicles have been described in plant cells (Robinson et al., 1998; see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Available data indicate that a considerable homology between coat proteins in plant, yeast, and animal cells exists, although we still know little of the molecular organization of transport vesicles in plants. Docking and fusion steps are thought to be mainly regulated by integral membrane receptors, termed SNAREs (for soluble N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) (see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). According to the prevalent model, SNAREs on vesicles (v-SNAREs) interact with cognate SNAREs on the target membranes (t-SNAREs). The soluble proteins NSF (for N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor) and α-SNAP (for soluble NSF attachment protein) then bind the v-SNARE/t-SNARE complex, and a rearrangement triggered by ATP hydrolysis finally promotes membrane fusion. The diversity and specificity of vesicle transport routes correlate with the complexity of traffic effectors, which include Rab proteins, Rab-binding molecules, Ca^2+, and components of the cytoskeleton. Many lines of investigation suggest that the mechanisms of vesicular budding, docking, and fusion are conserved across species and subcellular compartments. A growing number of proteins functionally homologous (orthologs) to the SNAREs characterized in yeast and mammalian cells is being identified in plant cells (Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Initial results show that the sorting mechanism for soluble proteins to the plant vacuole agrees well with the SNARE model. The putative plant vacuolar receptor AtELP (see above) is able to recruit the adaptor complex 1 (AP-1) present at the TGN. As a consequence, the AtELP receptor appears to be included in TGN-derived CCVs. These vesicles carry the vacuolar cargo together with its receptor to the prevacuolar compartment, where the receptor (AtELP) and the prevacuole-specific t-SNARE (AtPEP12p; da Silva Conceição et al., 1997) are colocalized (Sanderfoot et al., 1998). The vacuolar t-SNARE AtVam3p is used downstream in the late vacuolar pathway. However, its function in homotypic (vacuole–vacuole) or heterotypic (prevacuole–vacuole) fusions or in autophagy is still being debated. Compelling microscopic evidence is also suggestive of transient tubular continuities between compartments of the vacuolar pathway in particular cell types or physiological conditions. Indeed, tubular continuities between the ER and the Golgi complex, between cisternae from the same Golgi stack, between TGN units from adjacent Golgi stacks, between the TGN and the pre/provacuolar compartment, and between provacuoles and autophagic vacuoles have been described (see Marty, 1997). Such interconnections are consistent with an intracellular transport by cisternal progression and maturation. Vesicular and nonvesicular transport mechanisms, it should be stressed, are not mutually exclusive. Previous SectionNext Section TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS The vacuole plays an important role in the homeostasis of the plant cell. It is involved in the control of cell volume and cell turgor; the regulation of cytoplasmic ions and pH; the storage of amino acids, sugars, and CO[2]; and the sequestration of toxic ions and xenobiotics. These activities are driven by specific proteins present in the tonoplast and indicated in Figure 4. These functions have been abundantly documented and reviewed (Sze et al., 1992; Rea and Poole, 1993; Barkla and Pantoja, 1996; Leigh, 1997; Maurel, 1997; Wink, 1997; Rea et al., 1998; see also Chrispeels et al., 1999; Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). According to the chemiosmotic model for energy-dependent solute transport, the proton-motive force generated by either the V-ATPase or the H^+-translocating inorganic pyrophosphatase (V-PPase) can be used to drive secondary solute transports. Movement of ions and water down their thermodynamic potentials is achieved by specific ion channels and water channels (aquaporins). The resulting ion, water, and metabolite fluxes across the vacuolar membrane are crucial to the diverse functions of the vacuole in plant cells, such as cell enlargement and plant growth, signal transduction, protoplasmic homeostasis, and regulation of metabolic pathways (Sze et al., 1992). Figure 4. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 4. Model of ABC Transporters, H^+ Primary Pumps, H^+-Coupled Transporters, and Channels in a Simplified Tonoplast. Glutathione S-conjugate (GS-X) and metabolite (M) transport is achieved by an ABC transporter(s). An electrogenic H^+-ATPase (V-type) and an H^+-PPase acidify the vacuole. The proton motive force provides energy for uptake and release of solutes (i.e., cations, anions, and organic solutes, denoted A, B, or C indiscriminately here) across the tonoplast through transporters and channels. Water channels (aquaporins) facilitate the passive exchange of water. Recent studies have demonstrated the existence of a group of organic solute transporters, belonging to the ABC superfamily, that are directly energized by MgATP (Rea et al., 1998). These pumps are competent in the transport of a broad range of substances, including sugars, peptides, alkaloids, and inorganic anions. Belonging to the ABC family, the multidrug resistance–associated proteins (MRPs) identified in plants are considered to participate in the transport of exogenous and endogenous amphipathic anions and glutathionated compounds from the cytoplasm to the vacuole. They function in herbicide detoxification, cell pigmentation, storage of antimicrobial compounds, and alleviation of oxidative damage. A role for plant MRPs is also suspected in channel regulation and transport of heavy metal chelates. Previous SectionNext Section CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES Evolutionary perspectives place vacuoles at a central position in the physiological strategies of plants in their environment. In the vast majority of cells from the plant body, vacuoles provide the true milieu intérieur. They are responsible for the high cell surface–to–protoplasmic volume ratio required for extensive exchanges of material and information between cells and their environment. In cooperation with the cell wall, they create turgor, which is basic to cell hydraulic stiffness and plant growth. In specialized cells, pigment- and allelochemical-accumulating vacuoles serve as mediators of plant–plant, plant–microorganism, and plant–herbivore interactions. In seeds, vacuoles store proteins to be used for anabolism during seedling growth. The diversity of vacuolar functions parallels a diversity in morphology, biochemistry, and biogenesis. A number of different intracellular trafficking pathways have already been mapped and provide a structural framework for present concepts in vacuole physiology. The routes are many and varied, but there are significant overlaps, which suggests that although the vacuolar processes serve specific goals, they are all intimately related. Moreover, any one of the compartments from a given trafficking pathway may function so as to be, kinetically and physiologically speaking, “vacuole-like.” Much additional work is needed to characterize vacuoles and their progenitors more precisely by molecular criteria and to adjust recent molecular findings to a structural framework. Plant genetic screens will be useful to identify and characterize genes encoding plant-specific vacuolar functions. Autophagy, both in the degradative and biosynthetic pathways, arises as a key process in the biogenesis and remodeling of the vacuolar apparatus. It drives the formation of vegetative vacuoles when meristematic cells differentiate, it operates when the vacuolar apparatus switches alternately from vegetative to storage functions, and it is induced by starvation. Many questions are elicited regarding protein trafficking by autophagy. For instance, do autophagic membranes all have the same origin? What triggers the formation, movement, and fusion of the autophagic components? Much has also to be learned about the role of the cytoskeleton in organizing intercompartmental movement of vesicles and shaping vacuoles and their precursors. What are the regulatory mechanisms involved when cells inherit vacuoles from mother cells at mitosis? Previous SectionNext Section Acknowledgments The author is grateful to past and present members of his laboratory and to colleagues elsewhere for their contributions to the work discussed in this review. The author’s laboratory is supported by grants from the Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de la Recherche et de la Technologie (UPR ES 469), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Département des Sciences de la Vie), the Conseil Régional de Bourgogne, and the Délégation Régionale à la Recherche et à la Technologie. Previous Section REFERENCES 1. ↵ 1. Ahmed S.U., 2. Bar-Peled M., 3. Raikhel N.V. (1997). Cloning and subcellular location of an Arabidopsis receptor-like protein that shares common features with protein-sorting receptors of eukaryotic cells. Plant Physiol. 114, 325–336. Abstract 2. ↵ 1. Aubert S., 2. Gout E., 3. Bligny R., 4. Marty-Mazars D., 5. Barrieu F., 6. Alabouvette J., 7. Marty F., 8. Douce R. (1996). 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Compartmentation of secondary metabolites and xenobiotics in plant vacuoles. In Advances in Botanical Research, Vol. 25: The Plant Vacuole, Leigh R.A., Sanders D., eds (London: Academic Press), pp. 141–169. Search Google Scholar Teaching Tools Navigate This Article 1. Top 2. INTRODUCTION 3. THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES 4. BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES 5. VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS 6. ENDOCYTOSIS 7. VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS 8. VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS 9. TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS 10. TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS 11. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 12. Acknowledgments 13. REFERENCES 1. doi: 10.1105/tpc.11.4.587 The Plant Cell April 1999 vol. 11 no. 4 587-599 1. » Full Text 2. Full Text (PDF) 3. PPT Slides of All Figures 1. + CELLULAR COMPARTMENTS 1. Email this article to a colleague 2. Alert me when this article is cited 3. Alert me if a correction is posted 4. Similar articles in this journal 5. Similar articles in Web of Science 6. Similar articles in PubMed 7. 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The big thing that connects plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process that allows plants to take energy from the Sun and create sugars. Not all plants go through the process of photosynthesis. As with all of biology, there are exceptions and you may learn about plant species that are parasites. Plants also have cell walls. In the cells tutorials we explained that all cells have a membrane. Only plants have an additional cell wall made from cellulose. Let's look at photosynthesis. Plants are able to turn sunlight into energy but not directly. Plants are actually able to store energy in some chemical bonds that can be used later. Before we get into details, we'll explain that there are two processes on Earth: Photosynthesis and Respiration. Photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases that energy. It all starts with the Sun. Check out the tutorial on photosynthesis. Images of Plants Learning from Plants Not only do you see plants everywhere in the real world, but they are also all over the scientific world. Scientists use them for studies in genetics. A guy named Gregor Mendel used pea pods and their flowers to come up with some of the first ideas on how traits are passed from one generation of organism to another (genetics). We also use plants for food. Scientists are constantly developing new plants that are more resistant to disease and insects. Scientists also help create plants that grow faster and make more food. Plants Slideshow Take Quiz on Plants Next Stop On Biology4Kids Tour Return to Top of Page RELATED LINKS - Biology4Kids: Scientific Method - Chem4Kids: Metabolism - Chem4Kids: Carbohydrates - Geography4Kids: Ecosystems - Geography4Kids: Food Chains - Geography4Kids: Carbon Cycle - Geography4Kids: Oxygen Cycle - Geography4Kids: Nitrogen Cycle > Overview - Photosynthesis - Basic Structure - Xylem-Phloem - Reproduction - Special Structures - Mosses & Liverworts - Ferns & Horsetails - Gymnosperms - Angiosperms - Man and Plants MORE BIOLOGY TOPICS Google Custom Search ___________ Search * The custom search only looks at Rader's sites. __________________________________________________________________ Rader Network Side Navigation __________________________________________________________________ Biology4Kids Sections Scientific Studies | Cell Structure | Cell Function | Microorganisms Plants | Invertebrates | Vertebrates | Animal Systems Site Tour | Site Map | Home Page | Real World Examples | Activities & Quizzes Rader's Network of Science and Math Sites Cosmos4Kids | Biology4Kids | Chem4Kids | Geography4Kids | Physics4Kids | NumberNut Go to Help Page Go for site help or list of biology topics at the site map! (c)copyright 1997-2012 Andrew Rader Studios, All rights reserved. Current Page: Biology4Kids.com | Plants | Overview __________________________________________________________________ ** Andrew Rader Studios does not monitor or review the content available at these web sites. They are paid advertisements and neither partners nor recommended web sites. 404: Page not found This error is generated when there was no web page with the name you specified at the web site. Troubleshooting suggestions: Ensure the page you are linking to exists in the correct folder. Check your file name for case sensitivity . Index.htm is not the same as index.htm! Temporarily disable any rewrite rules by renaming your .htaccess file if it exists. Trends in Plant Science * Press Room * Cell Symposia * Jobs * Login * Register * Alerts * Activate Online Access X User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Forgotten User Name or Password? Login Remember me on this computer [ ] ____________________ Search (*) Full Text ( ) Authors Advanced Search * Home * Online Now * Current Issue Archive For Authors Journal Information Change Journal * Aims and Scope * Permissions * Subscriptions * Advertising Information * Instructions for Authors * Presubmission Enquiries * Submit Manuscript * Editorial Enquiries Journals * AJHG * Biophysical Journal * Cancer Cell * Cell * Cell Host & Microbe * Cell Metabolism * Cell Reports * Cell Stem Cell * Chemistry & Biology * Current Biology * Developmental Cell * Immunity * Molecular Cell * Neuron * Stem Cell Reports * Structure Trends in... * Biochemical Sciences * Biotechnology * Cell Biology * Cognitive Sciences * Ecology & Evolution * Endocrinology & Metabolism * Genetics * Immunology * Microbiology * Molecular Medicine * Neurosciences * Parasitology * Pharmacological Sciences * Plant Science [S1360138512X0013X_cov150h.gif] cover popup January, 2013 Volume 18, Issue 1 X cover popup Volume 18, Issue 1 A key plant response to drought is the accumulation of specific sets of metabolites, which act as osmoprotectants, osmolytes, antioxidants and/or stress signals. An emerging question is: How do plants regulate metabolism to balance the ‘competing interests’ between metabolites during stress? Recent research connects primary sulfur metabolism, e.g. sulfate transport in the vasculature, its assimilation in leaves and the recycling of sulfur containing compounds, with the drought stress response. On pages 18–29 Barry J. Pogson and colleagues highlight key steps in sulfur metabolism that play significant roles in drought stress signaling and responses. The authors propose that a complex balancing act is required to coordinate primary and secondary sulfur metabolism during the drought stress response in plants. Cover design by Susanne C. Brink. NEW! Trends in Plant Science Impact Factor: 11.047* * *Source: 2011 Journal Citation Reports©, published by Thomson Reuters Editorial Team * Editor Susanne C. Brink * Executive Editor, General Biology Geoffrey North * Journal Manager Jan Kastelein * Journal Administrators Ria Otten Patrick Scheffmann Advisory Editorial Board * John F. Allen Eduardo Blumwald Jorge J. Casal Jeff Dangl Caroline Dean Richard A. Dixon Alisdair Fernie Wilhelm Gruissem Martin Heil Dirk Inzé Maarten Koornneef Anthony Larkum Ottoline Leyser Cathie Martin Sheila McCormick Sabeeha Merchant Ron Mittler Rebecca Mosher Jane Parker Michael Purugganan Eric Richards Jen Sheen Kazuo Shinozaki Sjef Smeekens Venkatesan Sundaresan Yong-Guan Zhu Stay Connected Facebook Logo Twitter Logo YouTube Logo RSS Feed free article Featured Article CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, and Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Abstract | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data [plant-science;sz=336x280;ord=71164?] Trends in Plant Science in the News Sound-based communication in plants The Conversation University World News Deccan Herald The West Australian The Sydney Morning Herald Plant power: The ultimate way to ‘go green’? ClimateWire U.S.News PysOrg Cell Press Discussions [Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado-108x160.png] [trends-in-ecology-evolution.jpg] Join the discussion on Ecological Neutral Theory; useful model or statement of ignorance? Cell Picture Show Cell Picture Show Plant Biology: They feed, they fight, and they reproduce; in many ways, plants are just like us. Take a peek inside the beautiful—and often complex—lives of plants. Cell Picture Show View more slideshows. Cell Picture Show thanks our sponsor. Recent Trends in Plant Science Special Issue [May2012SpecialIssue.gif] ‘Specificity of plant-enemy interactions’ May 2012 Find here an archive of Trends in Plant Science Special Issues. Presubmission Enquiries | Special Issues | Topic Collections | @TiPSc_news on Twitter | RSS Feeds | Email TOC Alerts __________________________________________________________________ Volume 18, Issue 1 | January 2013 Hilson TECHNIQUES & APPLICATIONS Gateway vectors for transformation of cereals Mansour Karimi, Dirk Inzé, Mieke Van Lijsebettens, Pierre Hilson Friml OPINION Origin and evolution of PIN auxin transporters in the green lineage Tom Viaene, Charles F. Delwiche, Stefan A. Rensing, Jiri Friml Bowman OPINION Detecting trends in tree growth: not so simple David M.J.S. Bowman, Roel J.W. Brienen, Emanuel Gloor, Oliver L. Phillips, Lynda D. Prior Pogson REVIEW (From the Cover) Balancing metabolites in drought: the sulfur assimilation conundrum Kai Xun Chan, Markus Wirtz, Su Yin Phua, Gonzalo M. Estavillo, Barry J. Pogson Sheen1 REVIEW FREE online CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen Finnegan REVIEW Grasses provide new insights into regulation of shoot branching Tesfamichael H. Kebrom, Wolfgang Spielmeyer, E. Jean Finnegan Scheller REVIEW Golgi-localized enzyme complexes for plant cell wall biosynthesis Ai Oikawa, Christian Have Lund, Yumiko Sakuragi, Henrik V. Scheller SpecialIssue TIPS Special issue: Specificity of plant–enemy interactions Volume 17, Issue 5 | May 2012 Individual plant and enemy species (or populations) are reciprocally interacting in a way that shapes their traits and evolution. This concept of specificity in plant–herbivore and plant–pathogen interactions is central to this special issue of Trends in Plant Science. Key questions are how plants manage to defend against diverse enemies; why plant enemies are specialized at all and if most current plant–enemy interactions are the result of a coevolutionary history. In order to address these questions, the collection of articles in this issue combines perspectives of the plant with those of its enemies. This issue also sees the launch of a new article format in the journal: TrendsTalk, which provides a perspective on the career of plant scientists. Listen to the accompanying Podcast » How plant defenses have shaped the fussy dining habits of insects, with Anurag Agrawal [EMBED] You can listen directly by clicking on the player above. For a complete list of Cell Press podcasts, you can subscribe via iTunes or view the archive. __________________________________________________________________ New article formats 2012 sees the launch of two new article formats in Trends in Plant Science: Scientific Life:TrendsTalk articles provide insight into individual scientific careers. Spotlight articles provide a forum for discussion of issues and advancements that are of broad significance to the plant science community. Topics will include future outlook essays that serve to introduce or encourage research in a new field and new insights on long-standing questions and debates. Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Jen Sheen Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Martin Heil Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Anurag Agrawal Spotlight Brassinosteroids tailor stomatal production to different environments Gustavo E. Gudesblat, Camilla Betti, and Eugenia Russinova Spotlight Towards understanding plant bioacoustics Monica Gagliano, Stefano Mancuso, and Daniel Robert Spotlight New foods for thought Kendal D. Hirschi __________________________________________________________________ Collections These collections contain Opinion and Review articles published in Trends in Plant Science within the past two years and are updated monthly. A valuable resource for students or researchers new to the field. Biotic Stress Abiotic Stress Genomics, Genetics and Molecular Evolution Cell Signalling and Gene Regulation Growth & Development Systems Biology Physiology & Metabolism Plant Biotechnology __________________________________________________________________ Most Read Articles RSS Icon Article Feed These are the five most downloaded papers for the 30 days preceding January 25, 2013. See full list of most read articles Phytoalexins in defense against pathogens Ishita Ahuja, Ralph Kissen, Atle M. Bones 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.11.002 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1181 kb); | Supplemental Data CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data Cracking the elusive alignment hypothesis: the microtubule–cellulose synthase nexus unraveled Martin Bringmann, Benoit Landrein, Christian Schudoma, Olivier Hamant, Marie-Theres Hauser, Staffan Persson 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.003 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1935 kb); Evolution of jasmonate and salicylate signal crosstalk Jennifer S. Thaler, Parris T. Humphrey, Noah K. Whiteman 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.02.010 Summary | Full Text | PDF (280 kb); Alternative splicing in plants – coming of age Naeem H. Syed, Maria Kalyna, Yamile Marquez, Andrea Barta, John W.S. Brown 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.001 Summary | Full Text | PDF (472 kb); [plant-science;pos=bottom;sz=728x90;ord=95551?] Cell Press Logo [Visit another Cell Press journal______] GO * Contact Us | * Terms and Conditions | * Privacy Policy | * SiteMap Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. skip page navigation Oregon State University Department of Horticulture Landscape Plants Images, Identification, and Information Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 Home Page __________________________________________________________________ Trying to identify a woody plant? See the new woody plant identification system. plant images __________________________________________________________________ This site was developed with partial financial support from the: Oregon Master Gardener Association and the J. Frank Schmidt Family Charitable Foundation __________________________________________________________________ This site contains images and information on over 1,700 landscape plants (mostly woody) listed in alphabetical order by genus, from Abelia to Zelkova. Because of the large number of plant entries, the site is divided into four "sub-sites" or "volumes". Volumes 1, 2 and 3 cover a separate portion of the alphabetical plant list, as shown below (or search the Common Name List). CAPTION: First letter of genus (or a Genus itself) Volume 1 A Abelia Abeliophyllum Abies Acca Acer Actinidia Adansonia Aden ium Adenocarpus Aesculus Ailanthus Akebia Albizia Alnus Amelanchier Amorpha Ampelopsis Andromeda Aralia Araucaria Arbutus Arctostaphylos Ar disis Aronia Artemisia Asimina Atriplex Aucuba Azara B Baccharis Bauhinia Berberis Betula Brachyglottis Buddleia Bumelia Buxus C Callicarpa Calluna Calocedrus Calycanthus Camellia Campsis Caragana Carissa Carnegiea Carpinus Carya Caryopteris Castanea Catalpa Cathaya Ceanothus Cedrus Celastrus Celtis Cephalanthus Cephalotaxus Cer atonia Cercidiphyllum Cercidium Cercis Cercocarpus Chaenomeles Chamaeba tiaria Chamaecyparis Chilopsis Chimonanthus Chionanthus *Chitalpa Choisya Chrysolepis Chrysothamnus Cinnamomum Cistus Cladrastis Clematis Clerodendrum Clethra Coleogyne Cornus Corylopsis Corylus Cotinus Cotoneaster Crataeg us Cryptomeria Cunninghamia *Cupressocyparisa Cupressus Cydonia Cytisus D Daboecia Daphne Daphniphyllum Dasiphora Davidia Deutzia Diospyros Dirca Disanthus Drimys E Edgeworthia Elaeagnus Encelia Enkianthus Ephedra Erica Eriob otrya Escallonia Eucalyptus Eucommia Euonymus Evodia Exochorda Volume 2 F Fagus *Fatshedera Fatsia Feijoa Ficus Firmiana Fontanesia Forsythia Fouquieria Fothergilla Fragaria Franklinia Fraxinus Fremontodend ron Fuchsia G Garrya Gaultheria Genista Ginkgo Gleditsia Grevillea Gymnocl adus H Hakea Halesia Hamamelis Hebe Hedera Heptacodium Heteromeles Hibiscus Hippophae Holodiscus Hovenia Hydrangea Hyp ericum I Iberis Idesia Ilex Illicium Itea J Jasminum Juglans Juniperus K Kalmia Kalopanax Kerria Kniphofia Koelreuteria Kolkwitzia L Laburnum Lagerstroemia Larix Larrea Laurus Lavatera Leucotho e Leycesteria Ligustrum Lindera Liquidambar Liriodendron Lithocarpus Lithodora Lonicera Loropetalum Luma M Maackia Maclura Magnolia Mahonia Malus Manglietia Maytenus Melaleuca Menziesia Metasequoia Microbiota Microcachrys Mitchella Morus Myrica Myrtus N Nandina Neviusia Nothofagus Nyssa O Oemleria Olea Olearia Oplopanaxa Osmanthus Ostrya Oxalis Ox ydendrum Volume 3 P Pachysandra Paeonia Parakmeria Parrotia Parrotiopsis Parthenocissus Passiflora Paulownia Paxistima Phellodendron Phil adelphus Phillyrea Photinia Physocarpus Picea Pieris Pinus Pistacia Pittosporum Platanus Platycarya Podocarpus Polygonum Polystichum Poncirus Populus Potentilla Prumnopitys Prunus Pseudolarix Pseu dotsuga Ptelea Pterocarya Pterostyrax Punica Purshia Pyracantha Pyrus Q Quercus Quillaja R Rhamnus Rhaphiolepis Rhododendron Rhodotypos Rhus Ribes Robinia Rosa Rosmarinus Rubus S Salix Sambucus Santolina Sapindus Sarcococca Sassafras Sciadopitys Sequoia Sequoiadendron Shepherdia Sideroxylon Simmondsia Skimmia Sophora Sorbus Spiraea Stachyurus Stewartia Styrax Symphoricarpos Sympl ocos Syringa T Taiwania Tamarix Taxodium Taxus Ternstroemia Tetradium Theve tia Thuja Thujopsis Tibouchina Tilia Toona Trachelospermum Trachyca rpus Tsuga U Ulex Ulmus Umbellularia V Vaccinium Vancouveria Viburnum Vinca Vitex Vitis W Waldsteinia Washingtonia Weigela Widdringtonia Wisteria Wolle mia X Xanthocyparis Y Yucca Z Zanthoxylum Zelkova Ziziphus The last volume covers 75 herbaceous annuals or perennials Volume 4 Herbaceous Ornamental Plants __________________________________________________________________ Some additional items: * You may search for a given plant using the Common Name List. * Plants with their names in green (for example, Acer circinatum [Vine Maple]) are native to Oregon, or have become naturalized in the State. To view the list of such woody plants select Native List. * Click here for information on USDA Hardiness Zones from the US National Arboretum. * Information on Sunset's Climate Zones for Oregon, Washington and Idaho. * Some background information on Scientific Plant Names * Glossary of Some Technical Terms * Plant Identification: Examining Leaves * References * Trying to identify an unkown woody plant? See the woody plant identification system * Oregon Master Gardener Training * It is possible to search this website using Google technology: (However, be aware that because of the way Google works recent items added to this website my not be found using this search method.) Google _______________________________ Google Search ( ) WWW (*) Oregon State Unvi., LANDSCAPE PLANTS __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 __________________________________________________________________ For comments, suggestions, or corrections concerning this site please contact Patrick Breen, CPN (Certified Plant Nerd), Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University breenp@hort.oregonstate.edu __________________________________________________________________ Want information about Oregon State University? Click on Oregon State University, or write Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-4501, USA. Phone Number: 1-541-737-1000 __________________________________________________________________ Most recent update: January 20, 2013 #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Flowering plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Flowering plants Temporal range: Early Cretaceous â Recent PreÐ Ð O S D C P T J K Pg N Magnolia virginiana Sweet Bay Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Angiospermae Lindley^[1] [P.D. Cantino & M.J. Donoghue]^[2] Clades Amborellaceae Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae * Ceratophyllaceae * Chloranthaceae * Eudicotyledoneae (eudicots) * Magnoliidae * Monocotyledoneae (monocots) Synonyms Anthophyta Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm., 1966 The flowering plants (angiosperms), also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies (derived characteristics). These characteristics include flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; they are fruiting plants, although more commonly referred to as flowering plants. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245â202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60â100 million years ago. Contents * 1 Angiosperm derived characteristics * 2 Evolution * 3 Classification + 3.1 History of classification + 3.2 Flowering plant diversity * 4 Vascular anatomy * 5 The flower, fruit, and seed + 5.1 Flowers + 5.2 Fertilization and embryogenesis + 5.3 Fruit and seed * 6 Economic importance * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 Further reading * 10 External links [edit] Angiosperm derived characteristics Bud of a pink rose * Flowers The flowers, which are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers aid angiosperms by enabling a wider range of adaptability and broadening the ecological niches open to them.^[clarification needed] This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems.^[citation needed] * Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also become modified through time^[clarification needed] to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.^[clarification needed] * Reduced male parts, three cells The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants.^[citation needed] The smaller pollen decreases the time^[clarification needed] from pollination â the pollen grain reaching the female plant â to fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination. The shorter time leads to angiosperm plants' setting seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms, which is a distinct evolutionary advantage.^[clarification needed] * Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes and controls.^[clarification needed] This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized, the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal. * Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches.^[clarification needed] * Endosperm In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans.^[citation needed] The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest. [edit] Evolution Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab apple) Further information: Evolutionary history of plants#Flowers Fossilized spores suggest that higher plants (embryophytes) have lived on the land for at least 475 million years.^[3] Early land plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Sellaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed. The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (males) of Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin.^[4] However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic (245â202 million years ago). A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.^[citation needed] The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of whole genome duplication events.^[5] These occurred at 319 million years ago and 192 million years ago respectively. The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period),^[6] while pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 million years BP. However, one study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria, traditionally considered a type of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or at least a close relative.^[7] In addition, circumstantial chemical evidence has been found for the existence of angiosperms as early as 250 million years ago. Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids.^[8]^[9] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are not known to have been flowering plants themselves. Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics ^[10]^[11] showed that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies ^[12] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.^[13] The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007 estimated that the division of the five most recent (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago.^[14] By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes, but large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the Cretaceous 65 millions years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Tertiary.^[15] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.^[16] Yet, many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Two bees on a flower head of Creeping Thistle, Cirsium arvense It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently. Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of specialization in both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). While many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.^[17] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary-inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.^[18] A few paleontologists have also come up with an idea that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the idea's biggest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or coping with predation by herbivores.^[citation needed] [edit] Classification Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae magnoliids Chloranthales monocots Ceratophyllum eudicots The phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III (2009).^[19] Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae monocots Chloranthales magnoliids Ceratophyllum eudicots Alternative phylogeny (2010)^[20] There are eight groups of living angiosperms: * Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia; * Nymphaeales, about 80 species,^[21] water lilies and Hydatellaceae; * Austrobaileyales, about 100 species^[21] of woody plants from various parts of the world; * Chloranthales, several dozen species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves; * Magnoliidae, about 9,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper; * Monocotyledonae, about 70,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leavesâfor example grasses, orchids, and palms; * Ceratophyllum, about 6 species^[21] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants; * Eudicotyledonae, about 175,000 species,^[21] characterized by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks. The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales.^[22] The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. The five other groups form the clade Mesangiospermae. The relationship between the three broadest of these groups (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots) remains unclear. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots.^[20] Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. [edit] History of classification From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek αγγείον, angeÃon (bottle, vessel) and ÏÏÎÏμα, (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carolus Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name Gymnosperms. From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. Auxanometer: Device for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today. In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003^[23] and 2009^[19] revisions, treat the flowering plants as a clade called angiosperms without a formal botanical name. However, a formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants form the Subclass Magnoliidae.^[24] The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as APG II in 2003^[23] and as APG III in 2009.^[19]^[25] Monocot (left) and dicot seedlings Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliacae) and Liliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon (plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor a reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (clade) but that the dicots do not (they are paraphyletic). Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species do form a monophyletic group, called the eudicots or tricolpates. Of the remaining dicot species, most belong to a third major clade known as the Magnoliidae, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of primitive species known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae. [edit] Flowering plant diversity A poster of twelve different species of flowers of the Asteraceae family The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.^[26]^[27]^[28] This compares to around 12,000 species of moss^[29] or 11,000 species of pteridophytes,^[30] showing that the flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II^[23] (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.^[19] The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5 clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e., lesser than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families. The 42 most-diverse of 443 families of flowering plants by species,^[31] in their APG circumscriptions, are 1. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species; 2. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950; 3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400; 4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150;^[32] 5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035; 6. Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175; 7. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735; 8. Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005; 9. Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625; 10. Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555; 11. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350; 12. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225; 13. Araceae (arum family): 4,025; 14. Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995; 15. Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870; 16. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780; 17. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710: 18. Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600; 19. Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500; 20. Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830; 21. Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740; 22. Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625; 23. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525; 24. Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500; 25. Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460; 26. Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380; 27. Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361; 28. Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220; 29. Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200; 30. Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060; 31. Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050; 32. Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025; 33. Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020; 34. Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815; 35. Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745; 36. Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700; 37. Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650; 38. Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600; 39. Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600; 40. Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580; 41. Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500; 42. Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450. Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families; Piperaceae, Lauraceae, and Annonaceae are magnoliid (acot); the others are eudicot. [edit] Vascular anatomy Cross-section of a stem of the angiosperm flax: 1. Pith, 2. Protoxylem, 3. Xylem I, 4. Phloem I, 5. Sclerenchyma (bast fibre), 6. Cortex, 7. Epidermis The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings. In the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases. [edit] The flower, fruit, and seed [edit] Flowers Main articles: Flower and Plant sexuality A collection of flowers forming an inflorescence The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence. There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls). The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self- and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. [edit] Fertilization and embryogenesis Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis Angiosperm life cycle Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into fruit and the ovule will develop into seed. [edit] Fruit and seed Main articles: Seed and Fruit The fruit of the Aesculus or Horse Chestnut tree As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently, the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry, and others. The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit. [edit] Economic importance Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) Agriculture is almost entirely dependent upon angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn â maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.). In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants is timber production. [edit] See also Portal icon Plants portal Portal icon Botany portal Portal icon Agriculture and Agronomy portal * List of garden plants * List of plants by common name * List of plant orders * List of systems of plant taxonomy [edit] References 1. ^ Lindley, J (1830). Introduction to the Natural System of Botany. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. xxxvi. 2. ^ Cantino, Philip D.; James A. Doyle, Sean W. Graham, Walter S. Judd, Richard G. Olmstead, Douglas E. 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JSTOR 1554864. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content//iapt/tax/2002/00000051/00000 003/art00009.> 27. ^ Scotland, R. W. & Wortley, A. H. (2003). "How many species of seed plants are there?". Taxon 52 (1): 101â104. doi:10.2307/3647306. JSTOR 3647306. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/000000 01/art00011. 28. ^ Govaerts, R.url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/ 00000003/art00016+(2003). "How many species of seed plants are there? â a response". Taxon 52 (3): 583â584. doi:10.2307/3647457. JSTOR 3647457.^[dead link] 29. ^ Goffinet, Bernard; William R. Buck (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification". Monographs in Systematic Botany (Missouri Botanical Garden Press) 98: 205â239. 30. ^ Raven, Peter H., Ray F. Evert, & Susan E. Eichhorn, 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th edition. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. 31. ^ Stevens, P.F. (2011). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)". http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html. 32. ^ "Kew Scientist 30 (October2006)". http://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf. [edit] Further reading * Cronquist, Arthur (1981). An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 0-231-03880-1. * Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55407-206-9. * Dilcher, D. (2000). "Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (13): 7030. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. * Simpson, M.G. Plant Systematics, 2nd Edition. Elsevier/Academic Press. 2010. * Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman. 2004. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Magnoliophyta Wikispecies has information related to: Magnoliophyta The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Magnoliophyta * Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Dr. Harmut H. Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster â Flowering Plant Systamatics * Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette. * Watson, L. and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. * Flowering plant at the Encyclopedia of Life This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. * v * t * e Botany Subdisciplines of botany * Ethnobotany * Paleobotany * Plant anatomy * Plant ecology * Plant evo-devo * Plant morphology * Plant physiology 1859-Martinique.web.jpg Plants * Evolutionary history of plants * Algae * Bryophyte * Pteridophyte * Gymnosperm * Angiosperm Plant parts * Flower * Fruit * Leaf * Meristem * Root * Stem * Stoma * Vascular tissue * Wood Plant cells * Cell wall * Chlorophyll * Chloroplast * Photosynthesis * Plant hormone * Plastid * Transpiration Plant reproduction * Alternation of generations * Gametophyte * Plant sexuality * Pollen * Pollination * Seed * Spore * Sporophyte Plant taxonomy * Botanical name * Botanical nomenclature * Herbarium * IAPT * ICN * Species Plantarum Glossaries * Glossary of botanical terms * Glossary of plant morphology * Category * Portal * v * t * e Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato Rhodophyta Cyanidiophyceae · Porphyridiophyceae · Compsopogonophyceae · Stylonematophyceae · Rhodellophyceae · Bangiophyceae · Florideophyceae (Hildenbrandiales, Acrochaetiales, Nemaliales, Batrachospermales, Corallinales, Gelidiales, Gracilariales, Ceramiales) Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis · Cyanophora · Gloeochaete Viridiplantae/ Plantae sensu stricto Chlorophyta/GA Prasinophyceae UTC clade: Ulvophyceae · Trebouxiophyceae · Chlorophyceae Streptophyta Charophyta/GA Charales · Coleochaetales · Desmidiales · Klebsormidiales · Mesostigmatales · Zygnematales Embryophyta/ Plantae sensu strictissimo Bryophytes (non-vascular) Marchantiophyta · Anthocerotophyta · Bryophyta "Moss" · Horneophytopsida Tracheophyta Lycopodiophyta Isoetopsida (Isoetales, Selaginellales) · Lycopodiopsida (Lycopodiales) Euphyllophyta Moniliformopses (Equisetopsida, Filicopsida, Psilotopsida) Spermatophyta: Gymnosperm (Pinophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta) · Magnoliophyta See also: list of plant orders Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flowering_plant&oldid=533330 678" Categories: * Angiosperms * Plant taxonomy * Plants * Pollination * Plant sexuality Hidden categories: * All articles with dead external links * Articles with dead external links from April 2012 * Articles with 'species' microformats * Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012 * All articles with unsourced statements * Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 * Articles needing additional references from April 2012 * All articles needing additional references * Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with no article parameter * Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * Afrikaans * اÙعربÙØ© * Aragonés * AzÉrbaycanca * বাà¦à¦²à¦¾ * Bân-lâm-gú * Basa Banyumasan * ÐаÑҡоÑÑÑа * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ (ÑаÑаÑкевÑÑа)â * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Cymraeg * Dansk * Deutsch * Dolnoserbski * Eesti * Îλληνικά * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Gaelg * Galego * íêµì´ * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Hornjoserbsce * Hrvatski * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * á¥áá áá£áá * Kreyòl ayisyen * Kurdî * Latina * LatvieÅ¡u * Lëtzebuergesch * Lietuvių * Lumbaart * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * മലയാളഠ* Bahasa Melayu * NÄhuatl * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Nordfriisk * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Occitan * ÐлÑк маÑий * Ù¾ÙØ¬Ø§Ø¨Û * Plattdüütsch * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Runa Simi * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Sicilianu * Simple English * SlovenÄina * SlovenÅ¡Äina * СÑпÑки / srpski * Srpskohrvatski / ÑÑпÑкоÑÑваÑÑки * Suomi * Svenska * Tagalog * தமிழ௠* à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * Lea faka-Tonga * Türkçe * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ارد٠* Vepsän kelâ * Tiếng Viá»t * ××Ö´××ש * Zazaki * ŽemaitÄÅ¡ka * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 16 January 2013 at 06:53. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Advertisement. EnchantedLearning.com is a user-supported site. As a bonus, site members have access to a banner-ad-free version of the site, with print-friendly pages. Click here to learn more. Join Enchanted Learning Site subscriptions last 12 months. Click here for more information on site membership. As low as $20.00/year (directly by Credit Card) Click Here to Subscribe by Credit Card Site members have access to the entire website with print-friendly pages and no ads. (Already a member? Click here.) Our subscribers' grade-level estimate for this page: 4th - 5th [labelsmall.GIF] Plant Anatomy: Label Me! Printout EnchantedLearning.com Plant Anatomy Go to Plant Printouts Tree Anatomy Tree Anatomy: Label Me! Printout peanut plant A plant is a member of the kingdom Plantae, a living organism that utilizes photosynthesis, a process in which energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy (food). Plants are at the base of the food web and are autotrophs (or producers - organisms that make their own food). Plants vary greatly in size, shape, and the type of environment in which they live. Structure and Function: Roots anchor the plant in the ground and absorb water and mineral nutrients from the ground. Leaves contain chloroplasts, in which photosynthesis occurs. Carbon dioxide is absorbed through pores in the leaves; oxygen is produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released. Plant cells have a supportive cellulose cell wall (unlike animal cells which lack cellulose). The following is a diagram of the external anatomy of a typical flowering plant: [anatomy.GIF] axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole. axillary bud - a bud that develops in the axil. flower - the reproductive unit of angiosperms. flower stalk - the structure that supports the flower. internode - the area of the stem between any two adjacent nodes. lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of the stem of a plant. leaf - an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most leaves are flat and contain chloroplasts; their main function is to convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis. node - the part of the stem of a plant from which a leaf, branch, or aerial root grows; each plant has many nodes. Label the two lower nodes (the first and second nodes) on the plant diagram. petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant. root - a root is a plant structure that obtains food and water from the soil, stores energy, and provides support for the plant. Most roots grow underground. root cap - a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the apical meristem (the actively growing region) of the root. stem - (also called the axis) is the main support of the plant. tap root - the main root of some plants; the tap root extends straight down under the plant. terminal bud - a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem. Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical meristem, consisting of cells that can divide indefinitely. Phyla: The phyla in the kingdom Plantae include: Ginkgophyta, Lycophyta (lower ferns like club mosses), Pterophyta (ferns), Psilophyta (whisk ferns), Anthophyta (flowering plants), Gnetophyta, Sphenophyta, Coniferophyta (conifers), Cycadophyta (cycads), Sphenophyta, and Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts, hornworts). fir Plant Printouts EnchantedLearning.com Botany and Paleobotany Dictionary yucca Plants A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Click on an underlined word for more information on that subject. 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Advertisement. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c)2000-2010 EnchantedLearning.com ------ How to cite a web page #7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 front page Index 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Search 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Copyright Printable version Search Search ____________________ GO logo INRA Partenaires-TOP Identify yourself * Home page * Sessions * Keynotes * Program / Guideline * Submission * Registration 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference 2012 home page 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference (20-24 August 2012) 20-24 August 2012 Centre Diocésain 133 Avenue République 63051 Clermont-Ferrand, France What is Plant Biomechanics ? Plant Biomechanics is the study of the structures and functions of biological systems from the plant phylum (Plantae) with the help of concepts and methods of mechanics [1-5] (....) Read more ( into a pdf file) The Plant Biomechanics International Conferences : Plant biomechanics is an expanding interdisciplinary field, at the interfaces of biology, mechanics, physics and engineering. Despite its broad range of studies, it has long been felt that the researchers dealing with biomechanics have a lot to share. The first Plant Biomechanics International Conference was organized in Montpellier (France) in 1994. The 2^nd PBMIC was held in 1997 in Reading (UK), the 3^rd in 2000, in Badenweiler (Germany), the 4^th in 2003 was in Lansing (MI USA), the 5^th in 2006 was in Stockholm (Sweden), the 6^th in 2009 was in Cayenne (FG) in South America Over the years, the Plant Biomechanics International Conference has become the central event of the Plant Biomechanics research community, as well as a unique place for interdisciplinary exchanges around the amazing features that Plants have evolved to sense, acclimate and adapt to the mechanical challenges they have been submitted to. Welcome to Plant-BioMech 2012 in Clermont–Ferrand ! On behalf of all the French Plant Biomechanics community and of our International Board , Scientific and Organizing Committees, we are thus pleased to invite you to Clermont-Ferrand (France) to participate in the 7^th Plant Biomechanics International Conference. In the centre of Europe's largest regional nature park (the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Nature Park) and in the historic and active city of Clermont-Ferrand, you will enjoy the interactive overview over the research on plant biomechanics and mechanobiology from all over the world. We are really looking forward to meet you there! Dr Bruno Moulia, Dr Meriem Fournier Chairs of PBMC 2012 News Poster award All the posters have been reviewed and rated by an award committee (members of IAB and session organizers). Each day, the two highest scoring posters according to the following criteria have been awarded. Read more Important Facts The REGISTRATION is CLOSED since July 15 2012 . To see the FINAL PROGRAM go to Program/Guideline Read more Pour les Francophones et le Grand Public La Biomécanique traite des effets physiques et biologiques des sollicitations mécaniques externes (vent, courants aquatiques) et internes (turgescence, pressions tissulaires) sur le développement et le fonctionnement des plantes Read more General Chairs Int. Advisory Board Scient. Committee Org. Committee Partners Accommodation Social Program Touristic Info Access Plan Restricted Access * cadenas Scientific committee space * cadenas Organizers space www.inra.fr © INRA 2011 Contact | Legal-notice * Skip to navigation (Press Enter). * Skip to main content (Press Enter). * + + About the Institute o Profile o Organization # Scientific Advisory Board # Board of Trustees o History o Scienctific Organizational Chart + Research o Scientific Departments # Department of Plant Developmental Biology @ Groups # Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics @ Groups # Department of Plant Microbe Interactions @ Research Highlights @ Groups @ Research Groups affiliated with the Department @ Computational Biology @ Fungal Genomes @ Are you interested in joining our research teams? # Department of Comparative Development and Genetics o Independent Research Groups o Groups A - Z + Graduates o IMPRS o PhDs + Postdocs + Services o Scientific Service Groups o General Service Groups o Childcare + Reports and Publications o Publications o Annual Reports o Yearbook + Public Outreach + News o Paul Schulze-Lefert was awarded an ERC advanced grant o Press Releases o Event Calender o News Archive + Contact + Intranet ____________________ Submit * Contact * Sitemap * Intranet * * Deutsch * Home Information for Students Guests Journalists Alumnis Job Opportunities Job Offers * Postdoctoral position on axillary meristem formation in barley December 18, 2012 * 14 Doctoral Studentships December 13, 2012 More Job opportunities in German Events Events * Characterizing the circadian clock in seasonally variable settings 23 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * Genetic and Genomic Dissection of Maize Root System Development 30 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * The genomic organization of virulence in the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum 06 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * title pending 13 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall News * Support of the MPIPZ International Max Planck Research School granted for another 6 years December 05, 2012 * European research council (ERC) awarded an ERC advanced grant to Paul Schulze-Lefert November 12, 2012 * Symposium Next Generation Plant Science 2012 November 07, 2012 Research News * Differences in the genomes of related plant pathogens August 12, 2012 * Bacterial community inside the plant root August 02, 2012 * An international consortium sequences the tomtato genome May 30, 2012 * Early flowering caused by faulty biological clock May 14, 2012 * Pod corn develops leaves in the inflorescences April 24, 2012 * Plants use mobile proteins to defend themselves against bacteria December 09, 2011 Profile The Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research conducts basic molecular biological research on plants with the goal of developing more efficient breeding techniques and environmentally sound plant protection strategies for industrial crops. [more] Teaser_image_horizontal Department of Plant Developmental Biology Plants spend their life in one position, and thrive in locations where they are exposed to a wide variety of environmental conditions. This versatility is possible because plants continuously monitor and respond to environmental stimuli such as light, temperature and the availability of nutrients. Such responses alter the growth habit and form of the plant adapting it to its particular environment. [more] Intro_dpt_koornneef_neu_322_191 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics The genetic diversity between plant species is huge as observed by the large differences in many traits. However also within species substantial genetic variation is present in nature or has been generated by breeders and researchers. Mildew_haustorium3_bearb_richard_322_jpg Department of Plant Microbe Interactions Research in the department of Plant Microbe Interactions engages in fundamental molecular processes underlying interactions between plants and pathogens. The innate immune system of plants and mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis have a central role in our discovery program. [more] Mt_hpage_322x191_160712 Department of Comparative Development and Genetics Research in the Department of Comparative Development and Genetics aims to attain a predictive understanding of how biological forms develop and diversify, by using a combination of genetics, biological imaging, genomics and computational modelling. To empower their work scientists in the Department developed Cardamine hirsuta- a small crucifer related to the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana- into a powerful genetic system. Comparative studies between these two species and other seed plants aids them in uncovering the mechanistic basis for plant diversity and helps them formulate general hypotheses about how morphology evolves. [more] (c) 2003-2013, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Muenchen * Imprint * Recommend * Print http://www.mpipz.mpg.de/2169/en loading content Skip to main content __________________________________________________________________ Cornell University Cornell University Animal Science SEARCH: ____________________ go (*) Animal Science ( ) Cornell more options __________________________________________________________________ Plants Poisonous to Livestock __________________________________________________________________ * Home Page * Search Database * Find:-by botanical name-by common name * Scientific & Common Name Equivalents * Toxic Agents * Commonly Affected Species * Medicinal Plants * FAQs * Other Sites Plants Poisonous to Livestock and other Animals This is a growing reference that includes plant images, pictures of affected animals and presentations concerning the botany, chemistry, toxicology, diagnosis and prevention of poisoning of animals by plants and other natural flora (fungi, etc.). [a_muscaria_s.jpg] IMPORTANT:Just because something is on the poisonous plants list doesn't mean it can't be a good food or feed, and just because it is absent from the list doesn't mean it is safe! Many original images were provided by Dr. Mary C. Smith of the Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine. Additional images, text and web pages by Dan Brown and staff. The students of Nutritional Toxicology (Animal Science 625) have also made large contributions through web pages created as term projects. The frequently asked questions is a compilation of some of the questions we have received via email over the years. These pages are maintained by the Animal Science Department at Cornell University as a reference only. We have no physicians on staff to answer one-on-one questions about specific plants or poisons, especially as they apply to humans. We suggest you contact your local state or regional poison control center. For information on who to call or email in your area, visit Poison Control and Prevention Center Directory. Of course, if you have someone who has collapsed or has trouble breathing, you should call 911 before searching for a poison control center. For questions regarding the accuracy of the content of these pages, contact Dan Brown . (c)2013 Cornell University | CALS Home | Animal Science Home | Contact Webmaster | #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Succulent plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with cactus; botanically cacti are succulents but not all succulents are cacti. Succulent plants, such as this Aloe, store water in their fleshy leaves In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents or sometimes fat plants, are plants having some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. Succulent plants may store water in various structures, such as leaves and stems. Some definitions also include roots, so that geophytes that survive unfavourable periods by dying back to underground storage organs may be regarded as succulents. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" is often used in a way which excludes plants that botanists would regard as succulents, such as cacti. Succulents are grown as ornamental plants because of their striking and unusual appearance. Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Appearance * 3 Habitat * 4 Evolution * 5 Families and genera * 6 See also * 7 References * 8 Bibliography * 9 External links [edit] Definition There are a number of somewhat different definitions of the term "succulent". One difference lies in whether or not roots are included in the parts of a plant which make it a succulent. Some authors include roots, as in the definition "plants in which the leaves, stem or roots have become more than usually fleshy by the development of water-storing tissue."^[1] Others exclude roots, as in the definition "a plant with thick, fleshy and swollen stems and/or leaves, adapted to dry environments".^[2] This difference affects the relationship between succulents and "geophytes" â plants that survive unfavourable seasons as a resting bud on an underground organ.^[3] These underground organs, such as bulbs, corms and tubers, are often fleshy with water-storing tissues. Thus if roots are included in the definition, many geophytes would be classed as succulents. Plants adapted to living in dry environments are termed "xerophytes"; thus succulents are often xerophytes. However, not all xerophytes are succulents, since there are other ways of adapting to a shortage of water, e.g. by developing small leaves which may roll up or having leathery rather than succulent leaves.^[4] Nor are all succulents xerophytes, since plants like Crassula helmsii are both succulent and aquatic.^[5] Those who grow succulents as a hobby use the term in a different way to botanists. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" regularly excludes cacti. For example, Jacobsen's three volume Handbook of Succulent Plants does not cover cacti,^[6] and "cacti and succulents" is the title or part of the title of many books covering the cultivation of these plants.^[7]^[8]^[9] However, in botanical terminology, cacti are succulents.^[1] Horticulturalists may also exclude other groups of plants, e.g. bromeliads.^[10] A practical, but unscientific, horticultural definition is "a succulent plant is any desert plant that a succulent plant collector wishes to grow".^[11] Such plants less often include geophytes (in which the swollen storage organ is wholly underground) but do include plants with a caudex,^[12] which is a swollen above-ground organ at soil level, formed from a stem, a root or both.^[3] A further difficulty is that plants are not either "succulent" or "non-succulent". In many genera and families there is a continuous sequence from plants with thin leaves and normal stems to those with very clearly thickened and fleshy leaves or stems, so that deciding what is a succulent is often arbitrary. Different sources may classify the same plant differently.^[13] [edit] Appearance A collection of succulent plants, including cacti The storage of water often gives succulent plants a more swollen or fleshy appearance than other plants, a characteristic known as succulence. In addition to succulence, succulent plants variously have other water-saving features. These may include: * Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to minimize water loss * absent, reduced, or cylindrical-to-spherical leaves * reduction in the number of stomata * stems as the main site of photosynthesis, rather than leaves * compact, reduced, cushion-like, columnar, or spherical growth form * ribs enabling rapid increases in plant volume and decreasing surface area exposed to the sun * waxy, hairy, or spiny outer surface to create a humid micro-habitat around the plant, which reduces air movement near the surface of the plant, and thereby reduces water loss and creates shade * roots very near the surface of the soil, so they are able to take up moisture from very small showers or even from heavy dew * ability to remain plump and full of water even with high internal temperatures (e.g. 52 °C/126 °F)^[14] * very impervious outer cuticle (skin)^[14] * mucilaginous substances, which retain water abundantly^[14] [edit] Habitat Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) Many succulents come from the dry areas of the tropics and subtropics, such as steppes, semi-desert, and desert. High temperatures and low precipitation force plants to collect and store water to survive long dry periods. Succulents also occur as epiphytes, "air plants", as such they have limited or no contact with the ground, and are dependent on their ability to store water. Succulents also occur as inhabitants of sea coasts and dry lakes, which are exposed to high levels of dissolved minerals that are deadly to many other plant species. [edit] Evolution Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) The best-known succulents are cacti (family: Cactaceae). Virtually all cacti are succulents, but not all succulents are cacti. A unique feature of cacti is the possession of areoles, structures from which spines and flowers are produced. To differentiate between these two basic types that seem so similar, but that are unrelated succulent plants, use of the terms, cactus or cacti, only should be used to describe succulents in the cactus family. Popular collection of these types of plants has led to many Old World plants becoming established in the wild in the New World, and vice versa. [edit] Families and genera This section includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but the sources of this section remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2012) Apocynaceae: Pachypodium lealii, stem succulent Asphodelaceae: Haworthia arachnoidea, leaf succulent Cactaceae: Rebutia muscula, stem succulent Crassulaceae: Crassula ovata, stem and leaf succulent Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia obesa ssp. symmetrica, stem succulent Cylindropuntia imbricata: stem, woody succulent Malvaceae: Adansonia digitata, stem succulent Moringaceae: Moringa ovalifolia, stem succulent Nolinaceae: Beaucarnea recurvata, stem succulent Asparagaceae: Dracaena draco, stem succulent Euphorbia resinifera Plant families and genera in which succulent species occur are listed below. Order Alismatales * Araceae: Zamioculcas Order Apiales * Apiaceae: Steganotaenia * Araliaceae: Cussonia Order Asparagales * Amaryllidaceae (geophytes): Ammocharis, Apodolirion, Boophone, Brunsvigia, Crinum, Crossyne, Cryptostephanus, Cyrtanthus, Gethyllis, Habranthus, Haemanthus, Hessea, Nerine, Pancratium, Rauhia, Scadoxus, Strumaria, Zephyranthes, * Asparagaceae + subfamily Agavoideae: Agave, Beschorneria, Chlorophytum, Furcraea, Hesperaloe, Hesperoyucca, Yucca + subfamily Asparagoideae: Myrsiphyllum (now Asparagus) + subfamily Lomandroideae: Cordyline, + subfamily Nolinoideae: Beaucarnea, Calibanus, Dasylirion, Dracaena (plant), Nolina, Sansevieria,Eriospermum (geophyte) + subfamily Scilloideae (geophytes, a few succulent geophytes): Albuca, Bowiea, Daubenya, Dipcadi, Drimia, Drimiopsis, Eucomis, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Ledebouria, Litanthus, Massonia, Merwilla, Namophila, Ornithogalum, Polyxena, Pseudogaltonia, Pseudoprospero, Resnova, Rhadamanthus, Rhodocodon, Schizobasis, Schizocarphus, Spetaea, Urginea, Veltheimia, Whiteheadia * Doryanthaceae: Doryanthes * Hypoxidaceae (geophytes): Empodium, Hypoxis, Pauridia, Saniella, Spiloxene * Iridaceae (geophytes): Babiana, Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, Devia, Dierama, Dietes, Duthiastrum, Ferraria, Freesia, Geissorhiza, Gladiolus, Hesperantha, Ixia, Lapeirousia, Melasphaerula, Micranthus, Moraea, Pillansia, Radinosiphon, Romulea, Sparaxis, Syringodea, Thereianthus, Tritonia, Tritoniopsis, Watsonia, Xenoscapa * Orchidaceae (succulents) Acampe, Aerangis, Ansellia, Bolusiella, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Cyrtorchis, Oberonia, Polystachya, Tridactyle, Vanilla (succulent geophytes) Eulophia, Liparis, Oeceoclades (geophytes) Acroliphia, Bartholina, Bonatea, Brachycorythis, Brownleea, Centrostigma, Ceratandra, Corycium, Cynorkis, Didymoplexis, Disa, Disperis, Dracomonticola, Eulophia, Evotella, Gastrodia, Habernaria, Holothrix, Huttonaea, Neobolusia, Nervilia, Plicosepalus, Pachites, Platycoryne * + subfamily Epidendroideae Phalaenopsis * Xanthorrheaceae Xanthorrhoea + subfamily Asphodelaceae: Aloe (succulents and succulent geophytes), Astroloba, x Astroworthia, Bulbine (succulent geophytes, succulents, and geophytes), Bulbinella (geophyte), Chortolirion (succulent geophytes), Gasteria, Haworthia, Poellnitzia, Trachyandra (succulent geophytes and succulents), Order Asterales * Asteraceae: Arctotheca, Baeriopsis, Cadiscus, Chrysanthemoides, Coulterella, Crassocephalum, Didelta, Emilia, Eremothamnus, Gymnodiscus, Gynura, Hillardiella (geophyte), Lopholaena, Monoculus, Nidorella, Osteospermum, Othonna (succulents and succulent geophytes), Phaneroglossa, Poecilolepis, Polyachyrus, Pteronia, Senecio, Solanecio,Tripteris * Campanulaceae: Brighamia Order Brassicales * Brassicaceae: Heliophila, Lepidium * Capparidaceae: Maerua * Caricaceae: Carica, Jacarathia * Moringaceae: Moringa Order Caryophyllales * Aizoaceae: Corbichonia, Gisekia, Herreanthus, Limeum, Ophthalmophyllum, Saphesia + subfamily Aizooideae: Acrosanthes, Aizoanthemum, Aizoon, Galenia, Gunniopsis, Plinthus, Tetragonia + subfamily Mesembryanthemoideae (syn. Mesembryanthemaceae^[15]): Amoebophyllum (non-current), Aptenia, Aridaria, Aspazoma, Berrisfordia (non-current), Brownanthus, Calamophyllum, Caulipsilon, Dactylopsis,Ectotropis (non-current), Eurystigma (non-current), Halenbergia (non-current),Hameria, Hartmanthus, Herrea (non-current), Herreanthus (now Conophytum), Hydrodea (non-current), Hymenogyne, Kensitia (non-current),Marlothistela, Maughaniella (non-current), Mesembryanthemum, Micropterum (non-current), Mimetophytum(non-current), Neorhine (non-current), Nycteranthus (non-current), Pherelobus (non-current), Phiambolia, Phyllobolus, Platythyra (non-current), Prenia, Psicaulon, Ruschiella, Sarozona,Sceletium, Semnanthe (now Erepsia), Sphalmanthus (non-current),Synaptophyllum + subfamily Ruschioideae: o tribe Apatesieae: Apatesia, Carpanthea, Caryotophora, Conicosia, Hymenogyne, Saphesia, Skiatophytum o tribe Dorotheantheae: Aethephyllum Cleretum Dorotheanthus o tribe Ruschiae: Acrodon, Aloinopsis, Amphibolia, Antegibbaeum, Antimima, Arenifera, Argyroderma, Astridia, Bergeranthus, Bijlia, Braunsia, Brianhuntleya, Carpobrotus, Carruanthus, Cephalophyllum, Cerochlamys, Chasmatophyllum, Cheiridopsis, Circandra, Conophytum, Corpuscularia, Cylindrophyllum, Delosperma, Dicrocaulon, Didymaotus, Dinteranthus, Diplosoma, Disphyma, Dracophilus, Drosanthemum, Eberlanzia, Ebracteola, Enarganthe, Erepsia, Esterhuysenia, Faucaria, Fenestraria, Frithia, Gibbaeum, Glottiphyllum, Hallianthus, Hereroa, Ihlenfeldtia, Imitaria, Jacobsenia, Jensenobotrya, Jordaaniella, Juttadinteria, Khadia, Lampranthus, Lapidaria (plant), Leipoldtia, Lithops, Machairophyllum, Malephora, Mestoklema, Meyerophytum, Mitrophyllum, Monilaria, Mossia, Muiria, Namaquanthus, Namibia, Nananthus, Nelia, Neohenricia, Octopoma, Odontophorus (plant), Oophytum, Ophthalmophyllum, Orthopterum, Oscularia, Ottosonderia, Pleiospilos, Polymita, Psammophora, Rabiea, Rhinephyllum, Rhombophyllum, Ruschia, Ruschianthemum, Ruschianthus, Schlechteranthus, Schwantesia, Scopelogena, Smicrostigma, Stayneria, Stoeberia, Stomatium Tanquana Titanopsis, Trichodiadema, Vanheerdea, Vanzijlia, Vlokia, Wooleya, Zeuktophyllum + subfamily Sesuvioideae: Cypselea, Sesuvium, Trianthema, Tribulocarpus, Zaleya * Amaranthaceae: + subfamily Amaranthoideae: Arthraerva + subfamily Chenopodiaceae^[16]: Atriplex, Chenopodium, Dissocarpus, Einadia, Enchylaena, Eremophea, Halopeplis, Maireana, Malacocera, Neobassia, Osteocarpum, Rhagodia, Roycea, Halosarcia, Salicornia, Salsola, Sarcocornia, Sclerochlamys, Sclerolaena, Sueda, Tecticornia, Threlkeldia * Basellaceae: Anredera, Basella * Cactaceae: Acanthocalycium, Acanthocereus, Ariocarpus, Armatocereus, Arrojadoa, Arthrocereus, Astrophytum, Austrocactus, Aztekium, Bergerocactus, Blossfeldia, Brachycereus, Browningia, Brasilicereus, Calymmanthium, Carnegiea, Cephalocereus, Cephalocleistocactus, Cereus, Cintia, Cipocereus, Cleistocactus, Coleocephalocereus, Copiapoa, Corryocactus, Coryphantha, Dendrocereus, Denmoza, Discocactus, Disocactus, Echinocactus, Echinocereus, Echinopsis, Epiphyllum, Epithelantha, Eriosyce, Escobaria, Escontria, Espostoa, Espostoopsis, Eulychnia, Facheiroa, Ferocactus, Frailea, Geohintonia, Gymnocalycium, Haageocereus, Harrisia, Hatiora, Hylocereus, Jasminocereus, Lasiocereus, Leocereus, Lepismium, Leptocereus, Leuchtenbergia, Lophophora, Maihuenia, Malacocarpus, Mammillaria, Mammilloydia, Matucana, Melocactus, Micranthocereus, Mila, Monvillea, Myrtillocactus, Neobuxbaumia, Neolloydia, Neoraimondia, Neowerdermannia, Obregonia, Opuntia, Oreocereus, Oroya, Ortegocactus, Pachycereus, Parodia, Pediocactus, Pelecyphora, Peniocereus, Pereskia, Pereskiopsis, Pilosocereus, Polaskia, Praecereus, Pseudoacanthocereus, Pseudorhipsalis, Pterocactus, Pygmaeocereus, Quiabentia, Rauhocereus, Rebutia, Rhipsalis, Samaipaticereus, Schlumbergera, Sclerocactus, Selenicereus, Stenocactus, Stenocereus, Stephanocereus, Stetsonia, Strombocactus, Tacinga, Thelocactus,Trichocereus Turbinicarpus, Uebelmannia, Weberbauerocereus, Weberocereus, Yungasocereus * Didiereaceae: Alluaudia, Alluaudiopsis, Decaria, Didierea * Molluginaceae: Hypertelis * Phytolaccaceae: Phytolacca * Portulacaceae: Amphipetalum, Anacampseros, Avonia, Calyptrotheca, Ceraria, Cistanthe, Calandrinia, Dendroportulaca, Grahamia, Lewisia, Parakeelya (this name is not accepted by the Australian State and National Herbaria),^[17] Portulaca, Portulacaria, Schreiteria, Talinella, Talinum Order Commelinales * Commelinaceae: Aneilema, Callisia, Cyanotis, Tradescantia, Tripogandra Order Cornales * Loasaceae: Schismocarpus Order Cucurbitales * Begoniaceae: Begonia * Cucurbitaceae: Acanthosicyos, Apodanthera, Brandegea, Cephalopentandra, Ceratosanthes, Citrullus, Coccinia, Corallocarpus, Cucumella, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Cyclantheropsis, Dactyliandra, Dendrosicyos, Doyera, Eureindra, Fevillea, Gerrandanthus, Gynostemma, Halosicyos, Ibervilla, Kedostris, Lagenaria, Marah, Momordica, Neoalsomitra, Odosicyos, Parasicyos, Syrigia, Telfairia, Trochomeria, Trochomeriopsis, Tumamoca, Xerosicyos, Zehneria, Zygosicyos Order Diascoreales * Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea (geophytic succulent) Order Ericales * Balsaminaceae: Impatiens * Ericaceae: Sphyrospermum * Fouquieriaceae: Fouquieria Order Fabales * Fabaceae: Delonix, Dolichos, Erythrina, Lotononis, Neorautanenia, Pachyrhizus, Tylosema Order Gentianales * Apocynaceae: Adenium, Mandevilla, Pachypodium, Plumeria + subfamily Asclepiadoideae (syn. Asclepiadaceae): Absolmsia, Australluma, Aspidoglossum, Aspidonepsis, Baynesia, Brachystelma, Ceropegia, Chlorocyathus, Cibirhiza, Cordylogyne, Cynanchum, Dischidia, Dischidiopsis, Duvaliandra, Eustegia, Fanninia, Fockea, Glossostelma, Hoya, Ischnolepis, Lavrania, Marsdenia, Miraglossum, Odontostelma, Ophionella, Orbeanthus, Pachycarpus, Parapodium (plant), Periglossum, Petopentia, Raphionacme (geophyte), Riocreuxia, Sarcorrhiza, Schizoglossum, Schlechterella, Stathmostelma, Stenostelma, Stomatostemma, Trachycalymma, Trichocaulon, Tylophora, Woodia, Xysmalobium o tribe Asclepiadeae: # subtribe Asclepiadne: Asclepias, # subtribe Cynanchinae: Sarcostemma, # subtribe Gonolobinae: Matelea, o tribe Maxillarieae: # subtribe Lycastinae: Rudolfiella o tribe Stapeliae: Angolluma, Caralluma, Desmidorchis, Duvalia, Echidnopsis, Edithcolea, Frerea, Hoodia, Huernia, Huerniopsis, Larryleachia, Notechidnopsis, Orbea (plant), Orbeopsis, Piaranthus, Pachycymbium, Pectinaria, Pseudolithos, Pseudopectinaria, Quaqua, Rhytidocaulon, Stapelia, Stapelianthus, Stapeliopsis, Tavaresia, Tridentea, Tromotriche, Whitesloanea + subfamily Periplocoideae: o tribe Cryptolepideae: Cryptolepis * Rubiaceae: Anthorrhiza, Anthospermum, Hydnophythum, Hydrophylax, Myrmecodia, Myrmephythum, Phylohydrax, Squamellaria Order Geraniales * Geraniaceae: Monsonia, Pelargonium (succulents and geophytes), Sarcocaulon Order Lamiales * Gesneriaceae: Aeschynanthus, Alsobia, Chirita, Codonanthe, Columnea, Nematanthus, Sinningia, Streptocarpus * Lamiaceae: Aeollanthus, Dauphinea, Perrierastrum, Plectranthus, Rotheca, Solenostemon, Tetradenia, Thorncroftia * Lentibulariaceae * Pedaliaceae: Holubia, Pterodiscus, Sesamothamnus, Uncarina Order Malpighiales * Euphorbiaceae: Cnidoscolus, Euphorbia, Jatropha, Monadenium, Pedilanthus, Phyllanthus, Synadenium * Passifloraceae: Adenia * Phyllanthaceae: Phyllanthus Order Malvales * Cochlospermaceae * Malvaceae: Adansonia, Cavanillesia, Ceiba, Pseudobombax * + subgroup Sterculiaceae: Brachychiton, Sterculia Order Myrtales * Melastomataceae: Medinilla Order Oxalidales * Oxalidaceae (geophytes): Oxalis Order Piperales * Piperaceae: Peperomia Order Poales * Bromeliaceae: Abromeitiella, Aechmea, Ananas, Catopsis, Connellia, Dyckia, Hechtia, Neoregelia, Puya (genus), Tillandsia, Vriesea * Poaceae: Dregeochloa^[18] Order Ranunculales * Menispermaceae: Chasmanthera, Stephania, Tinospora Order Rosales * Moraceae: Dorstenia, Ficus * Urticaceae: Laportea, Obetia, Pilea, Pouzolzia, Sarcopilea Order Santalales * Loranthaceae: Actinanthella, Agelanthus, Erianthemum, Helixanthera, Moquiniella, Oncocalyx, Pedistylis, Plicosepalus, Septulina, Tapinanthus, Vanwykia * Viscaceae(synonym Santalaceae): Viscum Order Sapindales * Anacardiaceae: Operculicaria, Pachycormus * Burseraceae: Boswellia, Bursera, Commiphora * Meliaceae: Entandrophragma * Sapindaceae: Erythrophysa Order Saxifragales * Crassulaceae: Adromischus, Aeonium, Afrovivella, Aichryson, Bryophyllum, Cotyledon, Crassula, Cremnophila, à Cremnosedum, Dudleya, Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Greenovia, Hylotelephium, Hypagophytum, Jovibarba, Kalanchoe, Lenophyllum, Meterostachys, Monanthes, Orostachys, Pachyphytum, Perrierosedum, Phedimus, Pistorinia, Prometheum, Pseudosedum, Rhodiola, Rosularia, Sedella, Sedum, Sempervivum, Sinocrassula, Thompsonella, Tacitus, Tylecodon, Umbilicus, Villadia * Saxifragaceae Order Solanales * Convolvulaceae: Ipomea, Merremia, Stictocardia, Turbina * Solanaceae: Nolana Order Vitales * Vitaceae: Cissus, Cyphostemma Order Zygophyllales * Zygophyllaceae: Augea, Seetzenia, Zygophyllum (unplaced order)* Boraginaceae: Heliotropium (unplaced order)* Icacinaceae: Pyrenacantha (geophyte) For some families, most members are succulent; for example the Cactaceae, Agavaceae, Aizoaceae, and Crassulaceae. The table below shows the number of succulent species found in some families: Family Succulent # Modified parts Distribution Agavaceae 300 Leaf North and Central America Cactaceae 1600 Stem (root, leaf) The Americas Crassulaceae 1300 Leaf (root) Worldwide Aizoaceae 2000 Leaf Southern Africa, Australia Apocynaceae 500 Stem Africa, Arabia, India, Australia Didiereaceae 11 Stem Madagascar (endemic) Euphorbiaceae > 1000 Stem and/or leaf and/or root Australia, Africa, Madagascar, Asia, the Americas, Europe Asphodelaceae 500 Leaf Africa, Madagascar, Australia Portulacaceae ? Leaf and stem The Americas, Australia, Africa [edit] See also * Crassulacean acid metabolism * Cactus and Succulent Society of America [edit] References 1. ^ ^a ^b Rowley 1980, p. 1 2. ^ Beentje 2010, p. 116 3. ^ ^a ^b Beentje 2010, p. 32 4. ^ "xerophyte", Dictionary of Botany, 2001 onwards, http://botanydictionary.org/xerophyte.html, retrieved 2012-09-23 5. ^ "Crassula helmsii (aquatic plant, succulent)", Global Invasive Species Database, ISSG, April 15, 2010, http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1517&fr=1&sts=s ss&lang=EN, retrieved 2012-09-23 6. ^ Jacobsen 1960 7. ^ Anderson 1999 8. ^ Hecht 1994 9. ^ Hewitt 1993 10. ^ Innes & Wall 1995 11. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977 12. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977, pp. 19-20 13. ^ Rowley 1980, p. 2 14. ^ ^a ^b ^c Compton n.d. 15. ^ Plants of Southern Africa Retrieved on 2010-1-1 16. ^ FloraBase - The Western Australian Flora Retrieved on 2010-1-1 17. ^ Australian Plant Names Index Retrieved on 2010-1-1 18. ^ PlantZAfrica Retrieved on 2010-1-1 [edit] Bibliography * Anderson, Miles (1999), Cacti and Succulents : Illustrated Encyclopedia, Oxford: Sebastian Kelly, ISBN 978-1-84081-253-4 * Beentje, Henk (2010), The Kew Plant Glossary, Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9 * Compton, R.H., ed. (n.d.), Our South African Flora, Cape Times Ltd, OCLC 222867742 (publication date also given as 1930s or 1940s) * Hecht, Hans (1994), Cacti & Succulents (p/b ed.), New York: Sterling, ISBN 978-0-8069-0549-5 * Hewitt, Terry (1993), The Complete Book of Cacti & Succulents, London: Covent Garden Books, ISBN 978-1-85605-402-7 * Innes, Clive & Wall, Bill (1995), Cacti, Succulents and Bromeliads, London: Cassell for the Royal Horticultural Society, ISBN 978-0-304-32076-9 * Jacobsen, Hermann (1960), A Handbook of Succulent Plants (Vols 1â3), Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, ISBN 978-0-7137-0140-1 * Martin, Margaret J. & Chapman, Peter R. (1977), Succulents and their cultivation, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-10221-1 * Rowley, Gordon D. (1980), Name that Succulent, Cheltenham, Glos.: Stanley Thornes, ISBN 978-0-85950-447-8 [edit] External links Look up succulent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. * SucculentCity.org * Drought Smart Plants * Cacti & Succulent Picture Gallery * Cactus and Succulent Field Number Database * Definition of a Succulent * Cactus and Succulent website with plenty of information Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Succulent_plant&oldid=533158 692" Categories: * Plant morphology * Succulent plants Hidden categories: * Articles needing additional references from January 2013 * All articles needing additional references * Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2012 * All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * íêµì´ * Hrvatski * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * ÒазаÒÑа * LatvieÅ¡u * Lietuvių * Magyar * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * SlovenÄina * Suomi * Svenska * à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 15 January 2013 at 05:33. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. 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Or use the following contact options: * Phone: +49 (0) 8808 9345 * Fax: +49 (0) 8808 9346 * Email: info@plant-for-the-planet.org * Huella * Renuncia * Política de Privacidad * Prensa * Contacto * Login * Facebook * Twitter * Google+ * Flickr * Youtube * RSS * E-Mail [site-title.gif] * Home + News Archive * Learn More + Why plants are important + Why plants need our help + You can make a difference * About Plant Conservation Day + Partners * Celebration Stories * Resources for Organizers + For kids and families + For gardeners + Plant conservation tour + Conservation plant sale + Check out these books + Celebration resources Association of Zoological Horticulture Botanic Gardens Conservation International Plant Conservation Day > Learn More > Why plants need our help Why plants need our help bulldozer The world's plant species are facing unprecedented threats to their continued survival, despite the fact that their loss will have significant negative impacts on the humans and wildlife that depend upon them and the ecosystems services they provide. cactus Unfortunately, we know very little about what we are losing or how quickly we are losing it: there are nearly 250,000 angiosperm species currently known, and upwards of 350,000 species predicted (1). The world's plants are greatly underrepresented on the IUCN RedList when compared to other groups (2), but studies indicate that as many as 47% of the world's angiosperm species are now threatened with extinction (3). bg entrance Efforts to halt the loss of plant diversity are ongoing around the world (through local efforts and global efforts that collectively contribute to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation), but this work receives disproportionately less support and funding that equivalent work on animal species [e.g. over half of the listed species in the U.S. are plants, but these species receive only 5% of funding spent on endangered species (4)]. CITATIONS: 1. VAMOSI, J. C., AND J. R. U. WILSON. 2008. Nonrandom extinction leads to elevated loss of angiosperm evolutionary history. Ecology Letters 11: 1047-1053. 2. BRUMMITT, N., S. P. BACHMAN, AND J. MOAT. 2008. Applications of the IUCN Red List: towards a global barometer for plant diversity. Endang Species Res 6: 127-135. 3. PITMAN, N. C. A., AND P. M. JORGENSEN. 2002. Estimating the Size of the World's Threatened Flora. Science 298: 989. 4. KENNEDY, K. L. 2008. The Center for Plant Conservation: Twenty Years of Recovering America's Vanishing Flora, Saving Biological Diversity, 47-58. Contact BGCI - Contact AZH - Translate this page - Legal notices - Accessibility Montana State University in Bozeman Directories A-Z Index Search MSU_____ Search Montana State University Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology PSPP Home * Dept Information * Faculty & Staff + Faculty + Professional and Classified Staff + Contact Information * Undergraduate Program + Crop Science + Plant Biology + Environmental Horticulture Science + Landscape Design + General Biotechnology + Plant Systems + Sustainable Crop Production + Environmental Horticulture Minor * Graduate Program * General Student Info * Facilities * Producers and Farmers * More Information * Bozeman Community * College of Agriculture Dept of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology P.O. Box 173150 Bozeman, MT 59717-3150 Tel: (406) 994-5171 Fax: (406) 994-7600 Location: Plant BioScience Building Dept Head: Dr. John Sherwood CURRENT COURSE FOCUS CURRENT NEWSLETTER CURRENT RESEARCH vimeo wheat video Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology homepage The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology is part of the College of Agriculture at Montana State University in Bozeman. An exciting feature of this department is the diversity of programs in Plant Biology, Crop Science, Plant Pathology, Horticulture, Mycology, Plant Genetics and Entomology. The department offers BS, MS, and Ph.D. degree programs with a current enrollment of 100 undergraduate and 20 graduate students. The department has state-of-the-art laboratory and plant-growth facilities. Student and faculty researchers have access to seven research centers distributed across the state of Montana. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology offers class work for the undergraduate student in either Plant Science or Environmental Horticulture. Plant Science students can select degree options in Crop Science, Plant Biology or Plant Biotechnology. Environmental Horticulture students can select from options in Environmental Horticultural Science or Landscape Design. Graduate students can choose advanced work for a Master of Science degree in either Plant Sciences or Plant Pathology, or a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Plant Sciences with options in either Plant Pathology or Plant Genetics. The department participates in the inter-departmental Entomology Program, offering a Master of Science in Entomology and undergraduate Minor (for more information regarding entomology programs, contact Linda McDonald). An entering graduate student is expected to have a solid background in the basic sciences and a background equivalent to that provided by the undergraduate curriculum at Montana State University-Bozeman in the corresponding area of study. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology at Montana State University-Bozeman offers unique research strengths for graduate students, including 1) the biology, genetics and biochemistry of diseases of small grains, fungal products and the biological control of weeds and pathogens; 2) plant breeding and genetics emphasizing both traditional and molecular approaches; and 3) plant molecular biology and molecular genetics. (c) Montana State University Accessibility Accessibility Admissions Administration Contact List Jobs Legal & Trademarks Privacy Policy Site Index Français Français English English Print this page Save the date Add to your favorites Share Join the group to expand your network ! * News * Keydates * Links * Contacts * Disclaimer * Downloads * Home / Welcome Message * Co-organisers * Committees + Local Organising Committee + Technical Committee * Programme (Sept. 5-6) + Monday, September 5 + Tuesday, September 6 * Speakers guidelines * Technical Visits (Sept. 7) * Congress Dinner * Practical Information * Registration & Accommodation + Registration procedure + Accommodation * Sponsors * Attending companies * Media relations * Post congress page If you wish to be informed on updates about the conference, please submit your email address here: ____________________ Validate INVITATION TO JOIN! Welcome on our website ! Plant-based Chemistry Plant-based Chemistry constitutes a major avenue of progress for the sustainable development of chemistry in Europe. Plant-based chemistry enables us and proves that an alternative really does exist with European rural resources. On the occasion of the International Year of Chemistry, and continuing the event in February 2010 at Brussels (Lighthouses of Sustainability European Concepts for Competitive Bio-Based Chemicals) the main plant-based chemistry players in Europe are organizing an international «Plant-based Chemistry congress” with the focus on the achievements, challenges and opportunities. The meeting will be held in Paris at the Maison de la Chimie from Monday, September 5 to Wednesday, September 7, 2011 and forecasts to welcome 400 participants including academic researchers, industry representatives, policymakers and venture capital providers. The meeting will foster debate and discussions on challenges emerging from the new developments in this field. The first two days of the congress will feature plenary lectures and oral presentations while the third day will consist in technical visits of major French industrial sites such as Roquette and the Lestrem site, ARD and the Pomacle site, Sofiprotéol-Novance in Compiègne, Arkema and Le Cerdato in Serquigny. We look forward to welcoming you to Paris! Co-organisers Supported by Sponsored by Endorsed by * Home / Welcome Message * Contacts MCI FRANCE Aqualuna [allgrain.GIF] [all-in-poll.GIF] [allwind-poll.GIF] What is a Plant? Plants are essential for any ecosystem. They provide all the energy for the ecosystem, because they can get energy directly from sunlight. They use a process called photosynthesis to use energy from the sun to grow and reproduce. They also must get nutrients from the soil. Those nutrients get into the soil when decomposers break down waste and dead materials. Plants require space to grow and reproduce. The size of your ecodome will influence how much space your plants have. All other organisms in the food chain get energy from plants, either by directly eating them as herbivores do, or by eating plant eaters, like carnivores do. Omnivores can get energy either by eating plants directly or by eating herbivores. Likewise, decomposers get energy either from plants or from the animals that eat them. Since all the energy in your ecosystem comes from plants, you'd better have a lot of them. There are several different kinds of plants, and not all animals can eat all kinds of plants. [wind-poll.GIF] Grasses are only edible to herbivores. That is because the plants contain kinds of fiber that many omnivores cannot digest efficiently. Many herbivores have specially adapted stomachs that allow them to digest these plants. [dandelion3.jpg] [redclover.jpg] [grass3.jpg] [Bogmoss.gif] [in-poll.GIF] Fruit-Bearing Plants make fruit. Herbivores and omnivores can both eat fruit or vegetables from plants, however. Fruit and seeds and sometimes vegetables are part of the plant's reproduction, and generally the presence of pollinators will help these fruit-bearing plants survive better and make more fruit. [beans.gif] [potato.jpg] [corn2.jpg] [raspberry.jpg] [grapes.gif] [soybean.jpg] [strawberry.GIF] [grain.GIF] Finally, there are a kind of plants called grains which make seeds that can be eaten by certain kinds of omnivores but not all. Humans and chickens can eat grain seeds. Herbivores can eat the whole plant. [tallgrass.gif] __________________________________________________________________ GO TO: [largeherb.GIF] Herbivores [wind-poll.GIF] Plants [medomni.GIF] Omnivores [bigcarn.GIF] Carnivores [fungus.GIF] Decomposers [pollinator.GIF] Pollinators [dome.gif] Ecodome | skip navigation | | Home | About us | Aims | Contact us | News | Eden Project | New * Events * Feature articles * Plant People * News archive Getting around * Contributors * Stories * Past issues * Facts * Advertising * Join us Additional * Book reviews * Global plant conservation Colombia: From white to green 04.05.10 Plant Talk introduced the Colombian cocaine issue a few weeks ago. Today Colombian's Oscar Cuervo and Nelson Reyes describe how the cocaine industry is ravaging the environment and people in their beloved home country. The Colombian government has launched a campaign to raise awareness among cocaine consumers of the effects that coca crops have on the environment and people. The campaign Shared Responsibility aims to inform people and potential users of the dangers the drugs pose for human health and biodiversity. Colombia is a large country of almost 445,000 square miles and 45 million people. But it's the hugely diverse landscapes and wildlife that makes it so special. The country contains more than 35,000 plant species, an estimated 19% of the world’s bird biodiversity, 10% of fish and 6% of reptiles. Interestingly, Colombia has the second highest magnolia diversity, after China, and the Antioquia region alone contains 16 species (of which two have only recently been described). Because of this diversity and rarity, magnolias were selected as one of the pilot groups for implementation of the Colombian National Strategy for Plant Conservation. Disturbing digital art image of hummingbird taking cocaine. The Gorgeted Puffleg is an endangered hummingbird native to a small region in western Colombia and has become a figurehead of the Shared Responsibility campaign. With ecosystems ranging from the Amazon jungle to the snow peaks, coasts on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and a privileged position between North and South America. Colombia is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world and the sixth largest producer of freshwater. The famous Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson once noted that Biodiversity is to Colombia, what Oil is to Saudi Arabia. This rich natural history includes a vast number of endemic species, many of which are directly threatened by cultivation of coca. New species are constantly being discovered: but some may become extinct before they have even been discovered. It’s well known Colombia is the world's largest cultivator of the coca plant. Less well known is the massive scale of this cultivation. Currently there are 81,000 hectares under production, but in recent years cocaine production in Colombia has dropped by 28%, which may be due to the increased yields of new coca varieties. Unfortunately these illicit crops and the strategies to eradicate them have dramatic effects on the environment such as destruction of ecological niches, loss of unknown genetic potential, trashing of endemic vegetation, substantial increases in carbon dioxide emissions, changes in precipitation patterns and climate, among others. Big chunks of destroyed rainforest can be seen where cocaine is being grown The most obvious symptom of coca production is the very graphic destruction of the tropical rainforest by cutting and subsequent burning. However, there are more subtle impacts including the effect on sources and biodiversity. As a result, the environmental losses far exceed the actual areas of cultivation, and it is estimated that for every hectare of coca two to three hectares of forest have to be destroyed. Scientists estimate 2,100 hectares of forest are destroyed annually in Colombia in the production and eradication of illicit crops and according to estimates the cultivation, production and trafficking of coca in Colombia has caused the destruction of at least 2.4 million hectares of tropical forest over the past 20 years. This deforestation in turn drives soil erosion and a host of other environmental woes. pristine rainforest in Colombia damaged by cocaine production page 1 page 2 > Privacy policy | Cookies policy | Sitemap © the Eden Project, the Eden Project is owned by the Eden Trust registered charity no. 1093070 #zenhabits RSS Feed Finding Peace with Uncertainty How to Wait Less zenhabits : breathe A Guide to Eating a Plant-Based Diet Post written by Leo Babauta. If I could make a single dietary recommendation to people looking to get healthier, it would be to move to a plant-based diet. Eating plants has been the best change I’ve made in my diet — and I’ve made a bunch of them, from intermittent fasting to low-carb experiments to eating 6 meals a day to eating almost all protein to eliminating sugar (all at various times). Plants have made me slimmer, healthier, stronger, more energetic — and have increased my life expectancy (more on all this below). Of course, the diet is simple, but moving away from the Standard American Diet to a plant-based one isn’t always so simple for most people. Changing your diet can be difficult, but in this guide I’ll share a bit about how to change, talk a bit about why, and what you might eat. What’s a Plant-Based Diet? The simple answer, of course, is that you eat plants. You eliminate animals and (eventually) animal products like dairy and eggs. The less simple answer is there is an abundance of plant foods that most people never eat, and eating a plant-based diet means you might widen the variety of foods you eat. For example, some of my favorite foods include: tempeh, seitan, tofu, kale, broccoli, quinoa, ground flaxseeds, ground chia seeds, raw almonds and walnuts, raw almond butter, olive oil, all kinds of berries, figs, avocados, tomatoes, lentils, black beans, spirulina, hemp seeds, nutritional yeast, organic soymilk, sweet potatoes, squash, carrots, apples, peaches, mangoes, pineapple, garlic, red wine, green tea, brown rice, sprouted (flourless) bread, brown rice, steel-cut oats. A “plant-based diet” can be basically another way to say “vegan”, though many people do use the term to mean that you eat almost all plants with some animal products. In this post, I’ll be focusing on veganism, as I believe it’s the ultimate plant-based diet. Why Should I Change? There are a few important reasons to eat plants: 1. Health. The basis of this guide is health, and many people switch to eating plants because they want to lose weight, improve their heart health, stay healthy as they age, improve blood pressure or deal with diabetes. A plant-based diet has been shown to help with all of these things — if you also stay away from the processed foods. A diet of processed flour and sugar and fried foods isn’t healthy even if it’s all plants (more on this below). The healthiest populations in the world are plant based: the Okinawans (traditionally at almost all plants such as sweet potatoes, soybeans, lots of veggies, with a little fish and occasional pork), the Sardinians (beans & veggies, red wine, some cheese, meat only once a week), and the vegan Seventh-Day Adventists in Loma Linda, California who are the longest-living Americans. Eating plants is the best thing you can do to reduce your risk of the leading causes of death. 2. Environment. Honestly, while this is very important to me, it’s probably the least important of the three reasons on this list (for me personally, that is). But it’s huge: the biggest way to reduce your carbon footprint is to stop eating animal products — better than giving up a car (next best) or using less energy in your home or traveling by plane less or recycling or using solar energy or driving an electric car or buying fewer things. The animals we raise for food production use a ton of resources, eat way more plants than we do (which in turn also require resources to be grown), give off huge amounts of planet-warming methane, breathe out a lot of carbon dioxide, and create a lot of pollution. This 2006 United Nations report concludes that “Livestock have a substantial impact on the world’s water, land and biodiversity resources and contribute significantly to climate change. Animal agriculture produces 18 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 equivalents), compared with 13.5 percent from all forms of transportation combined.” And it takes 4,000 to 18,000 gallons of water to make the beef for one hamburger, according to a recent report from the U.S. geological survey. 3. Compassion. For me, this is the most important reason to move away from eating animals. I’ve talked a lot about compassion on this site, but by far the most cruel thing any of us does each day is consume animals (and their products). The cruelty that is perpetuated on these living, feeling, suffering beings on our behalf is enormous and undeniable. If you don’t believe me, watch this video with Sir Paul McCartney or this video about pigs. While I became vegan for health reasons, I stick with it for reasons of compassion — wanting to reduce the suffering of other sentient beings. But … if you don’t do it to avoid pollution, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, stroke, increased death rates, animal cruelty, global warming, deforestation, and higher costs … maybe weight loss would do it. Vegetarians and vegans weigh less on average than meat eaters. That’s even after adjusting for things like fibre, alcohol, smoking … and calorie intake! Half of Americans are obese, but vegans tend to be much less obese (with exceptions of course). That said, just going vegan will not necessarily cause you to lose weight. You could easily eat a lot of sugar, white flour, fake meats and fried foods and gain weight. If you eat whole plant foods, you’re likely to lose weight. Plant foods, for starters, have pretty much no saturated fat, low calories and tons of fiber, while animal foods all have saturated fat, lots of calories and zero fiber. Beating Death: I highly recommend watching this video on uprooting the causes of death using a plant-based diet. It’s a bit long, but well worth the time. How to Change It will be no surprise that I recommend people start small and change slowly. A good plan is to make the change in stages: 1. Slowly cut out meat. This stage is actually several smaller stages. You might try starting with Meatless Mondays and then, over time, expanding to other days of the week. Another common idea is to start by cutting out red meat, and then poultry, then seafood, in gradual stages of a month or even six months. There is no rush — do it at the pace that feels good to you. Another important point is that, as you eliminate meat, don’t just fill it with starches (which don’t have that much nutrition). Try new foods, experiment with ethic recipes, and explore different nutrients as you make these changes. 2. Eliminate eggs. After you cut out red meat and poultry, you’ll be pescatarian (seafood). When you eliminate seafood, you’re vegetarian! If you’re eating eggs and dairy, that’s called a “lacto-ovo” vegetarian. You can then eliminate eggs — and no, they’re not cruelty-free. This is one of the easier stages, in my experience. 3. Cut out dairy. This tends to be harder for most people. Not because of milk (soymilk and almond milk are good alternatives that just take a few days to adjust to) … but because of cheese. I hear a lot of people say, “I can’t give up my cheese!” — and I empathize, as this was a sticking point for me too. It helps that there are better and better cheese alternatives these days (Daiya being a favorite of many). But for me, what made all the difference is not focusing on what I was giving up, but on the good things I could eat! 4. Eat whole, unprocessed foods. This is the phase that I’m in, and I wholly recommend it. You can go straight here if you have no problems changing your diet, but people eating the Standard American Diet will find it difficult, because the foods are very different than what most people eat. For example, most people in the U.S. don’t eat many vegetables, and find them distasteful, especially dark green leafy veggies, which are the best. I now love vegetables, and kale is my best friend. Most people dislike protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, and beans. Most people don’t eat raw nuts — they eat roasted and salted nuts. However, all of this can change over time, which is why I recommend that you move into this slowly. What exactly is this phase? See the next section for details. What to Eat So what do you eat when you’re on a plant-based diet that focuses on whole foods? Lots! A few categories of foods to include regularly: 1. Beans and other protein. This means the regular kinds of beans, like lentils, black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, garbanzo beans, etc. But it can also mean soybeans (edamame), tofu, tempeh, and seitan (protein from wheat, not good for gluten-intolerant people). It can also mean soymilk, soy yogurt, and the like, which are often fortified. Get organic, non-GMO soy. 2. Nuts and seeds. My favorites include raw almonds and walnuts, along with ground flaxseeds and chia seeds, and hemp seed protein powder. Almond milk is also good. And quinoa — it’s like a grain, but really a seed, and full of nutrition. 3. Good fats. Fats aren’t bad for you — you should just look to avoid saturated fats. Luckily, not many plant foods have saturated fats. Plants with good fats include avocados, nuts and seeds mentioned above, olive oil and canola oil. 4. Greens. This is one of the most important and nutritious group of all. Dark, leafy green veggies are awesome, and full of calcium, iron and a ton of vitamins. My favorites: kale, spinach, broccoli, collards. Eat lots of them daily! They also have very few calories, meaning they pack a ton of nutrition in a small caloric package. 5. Other fruits and veggies. Get a variety — I love berries of all kinds, figs, apples, citrus fruits, peaches, mangoes, bananas, pears, bell peppers, garlic, beets, celery, cauliflower … I could go on all day! Get lots of different colors. 6. Good starches. Starches are not bad for you — but ones that have little calories aren’t great. So find starches that give you lots of nutrition. Sweet potatoes, red potatoes, squash, brown rice, sprouted whole wheat, steel-cut oats, among others. 7. Some other healthy stuff. I love red wine, green tea, cinnamon, turmeric, spirulina and nutritional yeast. OK, by now you might be overwhelmed by all of this. How do you put it together? It’s not that hard once you get used to it. Start learning some recipes that combine some of these foods into meals, and over time, you’ll have a few go-to meals that you love that are full of nutrition. Some examples that I like (but don’t limit yourself to these!): * Tofu scramble w/ veggies: some organic high-protein tofu crumbled and stir-fried with olive oil, garlic, diced carrots and tomatoes, spinach and mushrooms, and spiced with tamari, turmeric, sea salt and coarse black pepper. * Steel-cut oats: cook some steel-cut oats, then add ground flaxseeds, raw nuts, berries, cinnamon. * Stir-fry: Here’s my secret … you can make an endless combo of meals by cooking some garlic in olive oil, then cooking some veggies (carrots, bell peppers, mushrooms, etc.) and some protein (tofu, tempeh, seitan, etc.) and some greens (kale, broccoli, spinach, etc.) and some spices (turmeric or coconut milk or tamari & sesame oil, black pepper, salt). * Veggie chili over quinoa: Black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans with olive oil, garlic, onions, tomatoes, bell pepper, diced kale, diced carrots, tomato sauce, chili powder, salt, pepper. Maybe some beer for flavor. Serve over quinoa or brown rice. * One-pot meal: Quinoa, lentils, greens, olive oil, tempeh (or a bunch of other variations). Read Tynan’s post on cooking this all in one pot. * Whole-wheat pasta: Serve with a sauce — some tomato sauce with olive oil, garlic, onions, bell peppers, diced kale and carrots, diced tomatoes, fresh basil, oregano. * Big-ass Salad: Start with a bed of kale & spinach, throw on other veggies such as carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, snow peas, green beans, tomatoes … then some beans, nuts and/or seeds … top with avocado. Mix balsamic vinegar and olive oil, or red wine vinegar and olive oil, sprinkle on the salad. Yum. * Smoothies: Blend some almond or soy milk with frozen berries, greens, ground chia or flaxseeds, hemp or spirulina protein powder. Lots of nutrition in one drink! * Snacks: I often snack on fruits and berries, raw almonds or walnuts, carrots with hummus. * Drinks: I tend to drink water all day, some coffee (without sugar) in the morning, tea in the afternoon, and red wine in the evening. My Food Journal: If you’d like to see my food journal (admittedly not always perfectly healthy), I’ve started one that you can see here. Frequently Asked Questions I’ll add to this section as questions come in, though obviously I can’t answer everything. Q: Isn’t it hard to get protein on a vegan diet? A: Not really, as long as you eat a variety of whole foods, and not a bunch of processed flours and sugars (the white kind that has little nutrition). There is protein in vegetables and grains, and even more in beans, nuts and seeds. I often eat protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, edamame, black beans, lentils, quinoa, soymilk, and raw nuts. Read more here. Q: What about calcium or iron or B12? A: Again, it’s not difficult at all. I’ve calculated the iron and calcium in my diet at various times, and as long as I’m mostly eating whole foods, it’s really easy. Nuts and green veggies are your best friends, but there’s also calcium-fortified soymilk and tofu and the like. Eat some kale, quinoa, raw nuts, various seeds, broccoli, tofu or tempeh … it’s not difficult. Vitamin B12 is a bit more difficult to get from regular plants, as the main source of B12 is usually animal products — including eggs and dairy. But actually, vegans have figured this out, and now if you drink fortified soymilk or almond milk, or use nutritional yeast or a few other good sources like that, you will have no worries. More reading on iron, calcium and B12 for vegans. Q: Isn’t soy bad for you? A: No. That’s a myth. I would stick to organic, non-GMO soy, but actually soy is a very healthy source of protein and other nutrients, and has been eaten by very healthy people for thousands of years. More info here. Q: I follow the Paleo diet and believe this is how humans are meant to eat. A: Well, if you’re eating unprocessed foods and have cut out white flours and sugars and deep-fried foods, you’re probably healthier than the average American. I admire the Paleo crowd that focuses on whole foods and that eats lots of veggies and nuts and seeds, but when it’s just an excuse to eat lots of meat, it’s not as healthy. It’s also not true that hunter-gatherer societies ate mostly meat — the crowd that believes this has made a flawed review of contemporary hunter-gatherers. Most traditional societies eat, and have pretty much always eaten, mostly plants, including lots of starches — respected anthropologists such as Nathanial Dominy, PhD, from Dartmouth College say that the idea of hunter-gatherers eating mostly meat is a myth. Also read this. I’d also warn against low-carb, high-protein diets over the long run — in the short term, you’ll see weight loss, but in the long run they’ve been shown to increase cardiovascular disease (from June 21, 2012 issue of British Medical Journal). Q: It sounds difficult and complicated. A: Actually it’s very simple — you just learn to eat a variety of plants. It does mean learning some new meals, but instead of seeing that as a hardship, think of it as something fun to learn. If you slowly change your eating patterns, it’s not hard at all. Be flexible and don’t be too strict — you’ll find that it’s much easier if you allow yourself an occasional meal with animal products, especially in the first 6-12 months. Q: What about fake meats and cheeses? A: There’s nothing wrong with giving them a try now and then when you’re having a craving for something, but in all honesty you don’t need them. They’re more expensive and less healthy. Basically, they’re convenience foods. Q: What if I’m allergic to soy or gluten or nuts? A: It’s still possible to get all the nutrition you need from a plant-based diets without a specific kind of food (like gluten or soy), from what I understand. More here. Q: It sounds expensive. A: Actually it can be a lot less expensive, if you stay away from the vegan convenience foods (which are fine on occasion). Meat is more expensive than beans or tofu, for example. While fresh, organic veggies can cost a bit, you should get these in your diet even if you eat meat — and in the long run, you’ll save much more on medical bills. Q: There’s no way I’ll give up (eggs, cheese, ice cream, etc.)! A: Well, you don’t have to. If you want to eat mostly plants but also eggs and cheese, that’s much better than eating meat. But there are cheese substitutes you can try, and vegan ice cream, and in the long run, you might find that giving these things up isn’t as difficult as you think. Q: What about eating out at restaurants or social gatherings? A: I’d recommend you take it slowly at first, and eat mostly plants at home, and be more liberal when you eat out, for a little while. You don’t want to make this too difficult on yourself. But actually, once you learn some simple strategies, it’s not that hard to find vegan food in restaurants — some are easier than others, and sites like Happy Cow make it easy to find veg-friendly restaurants in your area. As for eating at friends’ and families’ houses, I’ve learned to offer to bring one or two vegan dishes, and it’s not usually a problem. Q: What if my family and friends don’t support this change? A: It’s best if you don’t start preaching — people don’t like it. This article might seem like a violation of that, but actually I rarely push veganism on this site, and when I do it’s only as a way to show others a healthy and compassionate alternative. Remember that those around you probably don’t know much about veganism, and are likely to react defensively. Take the opportunity, when they bring up the topic, to share what you’re learning, and the concerns you yourself had when you first learned about it. Show them some great vegan food. Share this guide with them. And always be patient. More answers here: Vegan Outreach Q&A, Vegan Nutrition FAQ, Vegan Society FAQ. Posted: 09.27.2012 Previous post: Finding Peace with Uncertainty Next post: How to Wait Less Join a million+ rad readers: rss | email | twitter | + About :: Archives :: Start :: Books/Courses :: Uncopyright :: Sea Change Program :: Forum Biology4Kids.com Popular Sections Plants Plant Basics If you're not a microbe and you're not an animal, chances are you are a plant. There are loads of species of plants on Earth. Just as there is a system of classification for animals, there is also a system of classification for plants. Because plants adapt so well to any climate, scientists need a way to organize the hundreds of thousands of species. Images of Plants What Makes a Plant? What do they all have in common? The big thing that connects plants is photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is the process that allows plants to take energy from the Sun and create sugars. Not all plants go through the process of photosynthesis. As with all of biology, there are exceptions and you may learn about plant species that are parasites. Plants also have cell walls. In the cells tutorials we explained that all cells have a membrane. Only plants have an additional cell wall made from cellulose. Let's look at photosynthesis. Plants are able to turn sunlight into energy but not directly. Plants are actually able to store energy in some chemical bonds that can be used later. Before we get into details, we'll explain that there are two processes on Earth: Photosynthesis and Respiration. Photosynthesis stores the energy and respiration releases that energy. It all starts with the Sun. Check out the tutorial on photosynthesis. Images of Plants Learning from Plants Not only do you see plants everywhere in the real world, but they are also all over the scientific world. Scientists use them for studies in genetics. A guy named Gregor Mendel used pea pods and their flowers to come up with some of the first ideas on how traits are passed from one generation of organism to another (genetics). We also use plants for food. Scientists are constantly developing new plants that are more resistant to disease and insects. Scientists also help create plants that grow faster and make more food. Plants Slideshow Take Quiz on Plants Next Stop On Biology4Kids Tour Return to Top of Page RELATED LINKS - Biology4Kids: Scientific Method - Chem4Kids: Metabolism - Chem4Kids: Carbohydrates - Geography4Kids: Ecosystems - Geography4Kids: Food Chains - Geography4Kids: Carbon Cycle - Geography4Kids: Oxygen Cycle - Geography4Kids: Nitrogen Cycle > Overview - Photosynthesis - Basic Structure - Xylem-Phloem - Reproduction - Special Structures - Mosses & Liverworts - Ferns & Horsetails - Gymnosperms - Angiosperms - Man and Plants MORE BIOLOGY TOPICS Google Custom Search ___________ Search * The custom search only looks at Rader's sites. __________________________________________________________________ Rader Network Side Navigation __________________________________________________________________ Biology4Kids Sections Scientific Studies | Cell Structure | Cell Function | Microorganisms Plants | Invertebrates | Vertebrates | Animal Systems Site Tour | Site Map | Home Page | Real World Examples | Activities & Quizzes Rader's Network of Science and Math Sites Cosmos4Kids | Biology4Kids | Chem4Kids | Geography4Kids | Physics4Kids | NumberNut Go to Help Page Go for site help or list of biology topics at the site map! (c)copyright 1997-2012 Andrew Rader Studios, All rights reserved. Current Page: Biology4Kids.com | Plants | Overview __________________________________________________________________ ** Andrew Rader Studios does not monitor or review the content available at these web sites. They are paid advertisements and neither partners nor recommended web sites. Biology of Plants Introduction Starting to Grow Plant Parts Making Food Pollination Seed Dispersal Plant Adaptations Plants and Life on Earth [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] Order the Videos or DVDs [spacer.gif] [menu_15.gif] [spacer.gif] Plant Parts Helpful terms Herbaceous: Plants with stems that are usually soft and bendable. Herbaceous stems die back to the ground every year. Woody: Plants with stems, such as tree trunks, that are hard and do not bend easily. Woody stems usually don't die back to the ground each year. Photosynthesis: A process by which a plant produces its food using energy from sunlight, carbon dioxide from the air, and water and nutrients from the soil. Pollination: The movement of pollen from one plant to another. Pollination is necessary for seeds to form in flowering plants. __________________________________________________________________ What's the difference between a fruit and a vegetable? A fruit is what a flower becomes after it is pollinated. The seeds for the plant are inside the fruit. Vegetables are other plant parts. Carrots are roots. Asparagus stalks are stems. Lettuce is leaves. Foods we often call vegetables when cooking are really fruits because they contain seeds inside. __________________________________________________________________ Play a Plant Parts Game! Play A Plant Parts Game! Plant Parts What Do Different Plant Parts Do? Plant parts do different things for the plant. Roots Roots act like straws absorbing water and minerals from the soil. Tiny root hairs stick out of the root, helping in the absorption. Roots help to anchor the plant in the soil so it does not fall over. Roots also store extra food for future use. Stems Stems do many things. They support the plant. They act like the plant's plumbing system, conducting water and nutrients from the roots and food in the form of glucose from the leaves to other plant parts. Stems can be herbaceous like the bendable stem of a daisy or woody like the trunk of an oak tree. Celery Celery Celery with dyed A celery stalk, the part of celery that we eat, is a special part of the leaf structure called a petiole. A petiole is a small stalk attaching the leaf blade of a plant to the stem. In celery, the petiole serves many of the same functions as a stem. It's easy to see the "pipes" that conduct water and nutrients in a stalk of celery. Here the "pipes" are dyed red so you can easily see them. Leaves Most plants' food is made in their leaves. Leaves are designed to capture sunlight which the plant uses to make food through a process called photosynthesis. Flowers Flowers are the reproductive part of most plants. Flowers contain pollen and tiny eggs called ovules. After pollination of the flower and fertilization of the ovule, the ovule develops into a fruit. Fruit Fruit provides a covering for seeds. Fruit can be fleshy like an apple or hard like a nut. Seeds Seeds contain new plants. Seeds form in fruit. Life Cycle of Plants Disclaimer/Credits Copyright (c) 2009 Missouri Botanical Garden MBGnet Home Trends in Plant Science * Press Room * Cell Symposia * Jobs * Login * Register * Alerts * Activate Online Access X User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Forgotten User Name or Password? Login Remember me on this computer [ ] ____________________ Search (*) Full Text ( ) Authors Advanced Search * Home * Online Now * Current Issue Archive For Authors Journal Information Change Journal * Aims and Scope * Permissions * Subscriptions * Advertising Information * Instructions for Authors * Presubmission Enquiries * Submit Manuscript * Editorial Enquiries Journals * AJHG * Biophysical Journal * Cancer Cell * Cell * Cell Host & Microbe * Cell Metabolism * Cell Reports * Cell Stem Cell * Chemistry & Biology * Current Biology * Developmental Cell * Immunity * Molecular Cell * Neuron * Stem Cell Reports * Structure Trends in... * Biochemical Sciences * Biotechnology * Cell Biology * Cognitive Sciences * Ecology & Evolution * Endocrinology & Metabolism * Genetics * Immunology * Microbiology * Molecular Medicine * Neurosciences * Parasitology * Pharmacological Sciences * Plant Science [S1360138512X0013X_cov150h.gif] cover popup January, 2013 Volume 18, Issue 1 X cover popup Volume 18, Issue 1 A key plant response to drought is the accumulation of specific sets of metabolites, which act as osmoprotectants, osmolytes, antioxidants and/or stress signals. An emerging question is: How do plants regulate metabolism to balance the ‘competing interests’ between metabolites during stress? Recent research connects primary sulfur metabolism, e.g. sulfate transport in the vasculature, its assimilation in leaves and the recycling of sulfur containing compounds, with the drought stress response. On pages 18–29 Barry J. Pogson and colleagues highlight key steps in sulfur metabolism that play significant roles in drought stress signaling and responses. The authors propose that a complex balancing act is required to coordinate primary and secondary sulfur metabolism during the drought stress response in plants. Cover design by Susanne C. Brink. NEW! Trends in Plant Science Impact Factor: 11.047* * *Source: 2011 Journal Citation Reports©, published by Thomson Reuters Editorial Team * Editor Susanne C. Brink * Executive Editor, General Biology Geoffrey North * Journal Manager Jan Kastelein * Journal Administrators Ria Otten Patrick Scheffmann Advisory Editorial Board * John F. Allen Eduardo Blumwald Jorge J. Casal Jeff Dangl Caroline Dean Richard A. Dixon Alisdair Fernie Wilhelm Gruissem Martin Heil Dirk Inzé Maarten Koornneef Anthony Larkum Ottoline Leyser Cathie Martin Sheila McCormick Sabeeha Merchant Ron Mittler Rebecca Mosher Jane Parker Michael Purugganan Eric Richards Jen Sheen Kazuo Shinozaki Sjef Smeekens Venkatesan Sundaresan Yong-Guan Zhu Stay Connected Facebook Logo Twitter Logo YouTube Logo RSS Feed free article Featured Article CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, and Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Abstract | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data [plant-science;sz=336x280;ord=71164?] Trends in Plant Science in the News Sound-based communication in plants The Conversation University World News Deccan Herald The West Australian The Sydney Morning Herald Plant power: The ultimate way to ‘go green’? ClimateWire U.S.News PysOrg Cell Press Discussions [Forest_fruits_from_Barro_Colorado-108x160.png] [trends-in-ecology-evolution.jpg] Join the discussion on Ecological Neutral Theory; useful model or statement of ignorance? Cell Picture Show Cell Picture Show Plant Biology: They feed, they fight, and they reproduce; in many ways, plants are just like us. Take a peek inside the beautiful—and often complex—lives of plants. Cell Picture Show View more slideshows. Cell Picture Show thanks our sponsor. Recent Trends in Plant Science Special Issue [May2012SpecialIssue.gif] ‘Specificity of plant-enemy interactions’ May 2012 Find here an archive of Trends in Plant Science Special Issues. Presubmission Enquiries | Special Issues | Topic Collections | @TiPSc_news on Twitter | RSS Feeds | Email TOC Alerts __________________________________________________________________ Volume 18, Issue 1 | January 2013 Hilson TECHNIQUES & APPLICATIONS Gateway vectors for transformation of cereals Mansour Karimi, Dirk Inzé, Mieke Van Lijsebettens, Pierre Hilson Friml OPINION Origin and evolution of PIN auxin transporters in the green lineage Tom Viaene, Charles F. Delwiche, Stefan A. Rensing, Jiri Friml Bowman OPINION Detecting trends in tree growth: not so simple David M.J.S. Bowman, Roel J.W. Brienen, Emanuel Gloor, Oliver L. Phillips, Lynda D. Prior Pogson REVIEW (From the Cover) Balancing metabolites in drought: the sulfur assimilation conundrum Kai Xun Chan, Markus Wirtz, Su Yin Phua, Gonzalo M. Estavillo, Barry J. Pogson Sheen1 REVIEW FREE online CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen Finnegan REVIEW Grasses provide new insights into regulation of shoot branching Tesfamichael H. Kebrom, Wolfgang Spielmeyer, E. Jean Finnegan Scheller REVIEW Golgi-localized enzyme complexes for plant cell wall biosynthesis Ai Oikawa, Christian Have Lund, Yumiko Sakuragi, Henrik V. Scheller SpecialIssue TIPS Special issue: Specificity of plant–enemy interactions Volume 17, Issue 5 | May 2012 Individual plant and enemy species (or populations) are reciprocally interacting in a way that shapes their traits and evolution. This concept of specificity in plant–herbivore and plant–pathogen interactions is central to this special issue of Trends in Plant Science. Key questions are how plants manage to defend against diverse enemies; why plant enemies are specialized at all and if most current plant–enemy interactions are the result of a coevolutionary history. In order to address these questions, the collection of articles in this issue combines perspectives of the plant with those of its enemies. This issue also sees the launch of a new article format in the journal: TrendsTalk, which provides a perspective on the career of plant scientists. Listen to the accompanying Podcast » How plant defenses have shaped the fussy dining habits of insects, with Anurag Agrawal [EMBED] You can listen directly by clicking on the player above. For a complete list of Cell Press podcasts, you can subscribe via iTunes or view the archive. __________________________________________________________________ New article formats 2012 sees the launch of two new article formats in Trends in Plant Science: Scientific Life:TrendsTalk articles provide insight into individual scientific careers. Spotlight articles provide a forum for discussion of issues and advancements that are of broad significance to the plant science community. Topics will include future outlook essays that serve to introduce or encourage research in a new field and new insights on long-standing questions and debates. Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Jen Sheen Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Martin Heil Scientific Life:TrendsTalk An interview with Anurag Agrawal Spotlight Brassinosteroids tailor stomatal production to different environments Gustavo E. Gudesblat, Camilla Betti, and Eugenia Russinova Spotlight Towards understanding plant bioacoustics Monica Gagliano, Stefano Mancuso, and Daniel Robert Spotlight New foods for thought Kendal D. Hirschi __________________________________________________________________ Collections These collections contain Opinion and Review articles published in Trends in Plant Science within the past two years and are updated monthly. A valuable resource for students or researchers new to the field. Biotic Stress Abiotic Stress Genomics, Genetics and Molecular Evolution Cell Signalling and Gene Regulation Growth & Development Systems Biology Physiology & Metabolism Plant Biotechnology __________________________________________________________________ Most Read Articles RSS Icon Article Feed These are the five most downloaded papers for the 30 days preceding January 25, 2013. See full list of most read articles Phytoalexins in defense against pathogens Ishita Ahuja, Ralph Kissen, Atle M. Bones 10.1016/j.tplants.2011.11.002 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1181 kb); | Supplemental Data CDPKs in immune and stress signaling Marie Boudsocq, Jen Sheen 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.08.008 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1730 kb); | Supplemental Data Cracking the elusive alignment hypothesis: the microtubule–cellulose synthase nexus unraveled Martin Bringmann, Benoit Landrein, Christian Schudoma, Olivier Hamant, Marie-Theres Hauser, Staffan Persson 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.003 Summary | Full Text | PDF (1935 kb); Evolution of jasmonate and salicylate signal crosstalk Jennifer S. Thaler, Parris T. Humphrey, Noah K. Whiteman 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.02.010 Summary | Full Text | PDF (280 kb); Alternative splicing in plants – coming of age Naeem H. Syed, Maria Kalyna, Yamile Marquez, Andrea Barta, John W.S. Brown 10.1016/j.tplants.2012.06.001 Summary | Full Text | PDF (472 kb); [plant-science;pos=bottom;sz=728x90;ord=95551?] Cell Press Logo [Visit another Cell Press journal______] GO * Contact Us | * Terms and Conditions | * Privacy Policy | * SiteMap Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. skip page navigation Oregon State University Department of Horticulture Landscape Plants Images, Identification, and Information Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 Home Page __________________________________________________________________ Trying to identify a woody plant? See the new woody plant identification system. plant images __________________________________________________________________ This site was developed with partial financial support from the: Oregon Master Gardener Association and the J. Frank Schmidt Family Charitable Foundation __________________________________________________________________ This site contains images and information on over 1,700 landscape plants (mostly woody) listed in alphabetical order by genus, from Abelia to Zelkova. Because of the large number of plant entries, the site is divided into four "sub-sites" or "volumes". Volumes 1, 2 and 3 cover a separate portion of the alphabetical plant list, as shown below (or search the Common Name List). CAPTION: First letter of genus (or a Genus itself) Volume 1 A Abelia Abeliophyllum Abies Acca Acer Actinidia Adansonia Aden ium Adenocarpus Aesculus Ailanthus Akebia Albizia Alnus Amelanchier Amorpha Ampelopsis Andromeda Aralia Araucaria Arbutus Arctostaphylos Ar disis Aronia Artemisia Asimina Atriplex Aucuba Azara B Baccharis Bauhinia Berberis Betula Brachyglottis Buddleia Bumelia Buxus C Callicarpa Calluna Calocedrus Calycanthus Camellia Campsis Caragana Carissa Carnegiea Carpinus Carya Caryopteris Castanea Catalpa Cathaya Ceanothus Cedrus Celastrus Celtis Cephalanthus Cephalotaxus Cer atonia Cercidiphyllum Cercidium Cercis Cercocarpus Chaenomeles Chamaeba tiaria Chamaecyparis Chilopsis Chimonanthus Chionanthus *Chitalpa Choisya Chrysolepis Chrysothamnus Cinnamomum Cistus Cladrastis Clematis Clerodendrum Clethra Coleogyne Cornus Corylopsis Corylus Cotinus Cotoneaster Crataeg us Cryptomeria Cunninghamia *Cupressocyparisa Cupressus Cydonia Cytisus D Daboecia Daphne Daphniphyllum Dasiphora Davidia Deutzia Diospyros Dirca Disanthus Drimys E Edgeworthia Elaeagnus Encelia Enkianthus Ephedra Erica Eriob otrya Escallonia Eucalyptus Eucommia Euonymus Evodia Exochorda Volume 2 F Fagus *Fatshedera Fatsia Feijoa Ficus Firmiana Fontanesia Forsythia Fouquieria Fothergilla Fragaria Franklinia Fraxinus Fremontodend ron Fuchsia G Garrya Gaultheria Genista Ginkgo Gleditsia Grevillea Gymnocl adus H Hakea Halesia Hamamelis Hebe Hedera Heptacodium Heteromeles Hibiscus Hippophae Holodiscus Hovenia Hydrangea Hyp ericum I Iberis Idesia Ilex Illicium Itea J Jasminum Juglans Juniperus K Kalmia Kalopanax Kerria Kniphofia Koelreuteria Kolkwitzia L Laburnum Lagerstroemia Larix Larrea Laurus Lavatera Leucotho e Leycesteria Ligustrum Lindera Liquidambar Liriodendron Lithocarpus Lithodora Lonicera Loropetalum Luma M Maackia Maclura Magnolia Mahonia Malus Manglietia Maytenus Melaleuca Menziesia Metasequoia Microbiota Microcachrys Mitchella Morus Myrica Myrtus N Nandina Neviusia Nothofagus Nyssa O Oemleria Olea Olearia Oplopanaxa Osmanthus Ostrya Oxalis Ox ydendrum Volume 3 P Pachysandra Paeonia Parakmeria Parrotia Parrotiopsis Parthenocissus Passiflora Paulownia Paxistima Phellodendron Phil adelphus Phillyrea Photinia Physocarpus Picea Pieris Pinus Pistacia Pittosporum Platanus Platycarya Podocarpus Polygonum Polystichum Poncirus Populus Potentilla Prumnopitys Prunus Pseudolarix Pseu dotsuga Ptelea Pterocarya Pterostyrax Punica Purshia Pyracantha Pyrus Q Quercus Quillaja R Rhamnus Rhaphiolepis Rhododendron Rhodotypos Rhus Ribes Robinia Rosa Rosmarinus Rubus S Salix Sambucus Santolina Sapindus Sarcococca Sassafras Sciadopitys Sequoia Sequoiadendron Shepherdia Sideroxylon Simmondsia Skimmia Sophora Sorbus Spiraea Stachyurus Stewartia Styrax Symphoricarpos Sympl ocos Syringa T Taiwania Tamarix Taxodium Taxus Ternstroemia Tetradium Theve tia Thuja Thujopsis Tibouchina Tilia Toona Trachelospermum Trachyca rpus Tsuga U Ulex Ulmus Umbellularia V Vaccinium Vancouveria Viburnum Vinca Vitex Vitis W Waldsteinia Washingtonia Weigela Widdringtonia Wisteria Wolle mia X Xanthocyparis Y Yucca Z Zanthoxylum Zelkova Ziziphus The last volume covers 75 herbaceous annuals or perennials Volume 4 Herbaceous Ornamental Plants __________________________________________________________________ Some additional items: * You may search for a given plant using the Common Name List. * Plants with their names in green (for example, Acer circinatum [Vine Maple]) are native to Oregon, or have become naturalized in the State. To view the list of such woody plants select Native List. * Click here for information on USDA Hardiness Zones from the US National Arboretum. * Information on Sunset's Climate Zones for Oregon, Washington and Idaho. * Some background information on Scientific Plant Names * Glossary of Some Technical Terms * Plant Identification: Examining Leaves * References * Trying to identify an unkown woody plant? See the woody plant identification system * Oregon Master Gardener Training * It is possible to search this website using Google technology: (However, be aware that because of the way Google works recent items added to this website my not be found using this search method.) Google _______________________________ Google Search ( ) WWW (*) Oregon State Unvi., LANDSCAPE PLANTS __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c), Oregon State University, 1999-2013 __________________________________________________________________ For comments, suggestions, or corrections concerning this site please contact Patrick Breen, CPN (Certified Plant Nerd), Department of Horticulture, Oregon State University breenp@hort.oregonstate.edu __________________________________________________________________ Want information about Oregon State University? Click on Oregon State University, or write Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331-4501, USA. Phone Number: 1-541-737-1000 __________________________________________________________________ Most recent update: January 20, 2013 #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Flowering plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Flowering plants Temporal range: Early Cretaceous â Recent PreÐ Ð O S D C P T J K Pg N Magnolia virginiana Sweet Bay Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae Division: Angiospermae Lindley^[1] [P.D. Cantino & M.J. Donoghue]^[2] Clades Amborellaceae Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae * Ceratophyllaceae * Chloranthaceae * Eudicotyledoneae (eudicots) * Magnoliidae * Monocotyledoneae (monocots) Synonyms Anthophyta Magnoliophyta Cronquist, Takht. & W.Zimm., 1966 The flowering plants (angiosperms), also known as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta, are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed-producing plants like the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies (derived characteristics). These characteristics include flowers, endosperm within the seeds, and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. Etymologically, angiosperm means a plant that produces seeds within an enclosure; they are fruiting plants, although more commonly referred to as flowering plants. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around 245â202 million years ago, and the first flowering plants known to exist are from 140 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the Lower Cretaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago, but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around 60â100 million years ago. Contents * 1 Angiosperm derived characteristics * 2 Evolution * 3 Classification + 3.1 History of classification + 3.2 Flowering plant diversity * 4 Vascular anatomy * 5 The flower, fruit, and seed + 5.1 Flowers + 5.2 Fertilization and embryogenesis + 5.3 Fruit and seed * 6 Economic importance * 7 See also * 8 References * 9 Further reading * 10 External links [edit] Angiosperm derived characteristics Bud of a pink rose * Flowers The flowers, which are the reproductive organs of flowering plants, are the most remarkable feature distinguishing them from the other seed plants. Flowers aid angiosperms by enabling a wider range of adaptability and broadening the ecological niches open to them.^[clarification needed] This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems.^[citation needed] * Stamens with two pairs of pollen sacs Stamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes, such as particular pollinators. Stamens have also become modified through time^[clarification needed] to prevent self-fertilization, which has permitted further diversification, allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.^[clarification needed] * Reduced male parts, three cells The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in size compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants.^[citation needed] The smaller pollen decreases the time^[clarification needed] from pollination â the pollen grain reaching the female plant â to fertilization. In gymnosperms, fertilization can occur up to a year after pollination, whereas in angiosperms, fertilization begins very soon after pollination. The shorter time leads to angiosperm plants' setting seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms, which is a distinct evolutionary advantage.^[clarification needed] * Closed carpel enclosing the ovules (carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit) The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to specialized pollination syndromes and controls.^[clarification needed] This helps to prevent self-fertilization, thereby maintaining increased diversity. Once the ovary is fertilized, the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed-dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal. * Reduced female gametophyte, seven cells with eight nuclei The reduced female gametophyte, like the reduced male gametophyte, may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set, eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life-cycles, allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches.^[clarification needed] * Endosperm In general, endosperm formation begins after fertilization and before the first division of the zygote. Endosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo, the cotyledons, and sometimes the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics taken together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans.^[citation needed] The major exception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest. [edit] Evolution Flowers of Malus sylvestris (crab apple) Further information: Evolutionary history of plants#Flowers Fossilized spores suggest that higher plants (embryophytes) have lived on the land for at least 475 million years.^[3] Early land plants reproduced sexually with flagellated, swimming sperm, like the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestrialization was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lacking in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives, the Charophycean green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation took place with retention of the delicate, avascular sexual stage, the gametophyte, within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release, as in non-seed plants. A current example of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Sellaginella, the spike-moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case, the seed. The first seed bearing plants, like the ginkgo, and conifers (such as pines and firs), did not produce flowers. The pollen grains (males) of Ginkgo and cycads produce a pair of flagellated, mobile sperm cells that "swim" down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record initially posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an "abominable mystery" by Charles Darwin.^[4] However, the fossil record has considerably grown since the time of Darwin, and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as Archaefructus, along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms, suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acquired in a series of steps. Several groups of extinct gymnosperms, in particular seed ferns, have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants, but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing exactly how flowers evolved. Some older fossils, such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia, have been suggested. Based on current evidence, some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an unknown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic (245â202 million years ago). A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes, proposed on the basis of morphological evidence, has more recently been disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms.^[citation needed] The evolution of seed plants and later angiosperms appears to be the result of two distinct rounds of whole genome duplication events.^[5] These occurred at 319 million years ago and 192 million years ago respectively. The earliest known macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm, Archaefructus liaoningensis, is dated to about 125 million years BP (the Cretaceous period),^[6] while pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin takes the fossil record back to about 130 million years BP. However, one study has suggested that the early-middle Jurassic plant Schmeissneria, traditionally considered a type of ginkgo, may be the earliest known angiosperm, or at least a close relative.^[7] In addition, circumstantial chemical evidence has been found for the existence of angiosperms as early as 250 million years ago. Oleanane, a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants, has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids.^[8]^[9] Gigantopterids are a group of extinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants, although they are not known to have been flowering plants themselves. Recent DNA analysis based on molecular systematics ^[10]^[11] showed that Amborella trichopoda, found on the Pacific island of New Caledonia, belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants, and morphological studies ^[12] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The orders Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales diverged as separate lineages from the remaining angiosperm clade at a very early stage in flowering plant evolution.^[13] The great angiosperm radiation, when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record, occurred in the mid-Cretaceous (approximately 100 million years ago). However, a study in 2007 estimated that the division of the five most recent (the genus Ceratophyllum, the family Chloranthaceae, the eudicots, the magnoliids, and the monocots) of the eight main groups occurred around 140 million years ago.^[14] By the late Cretaceous, angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes, but large canopy-forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the Cretaceous 65 millions years ago or even later, at the beginning of the Tertiary.^[15] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperms occurred much later.^[16] Yet, many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families (including beech, oak, maple, and magnolia) had already appeared by the late Cretaceous. Two bees on a flower head of Creeping Thistle, Cirsium arvense It is generally assumed that the function of flowers, from the start, was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is, pollen can be scattered even if the flower is not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals; however, by expending the energy required to create such traits, angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and, thus, reproduce more efficiently. Island genetics provides one proposed explanation for the sudden, fully developed appearance of flowering plants. Island genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general, especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have required inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting like an island or island chain, where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly specialized relationship with some specific animal (a wasp, for example). Such a relationship, with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today, could result in the development of a high degree of specialization in both the plant(s) and their partners. Note that the wasp example is not incidental; bees, which, it is postulated, evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships, are descended from wasps. Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit, which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts, is frequently a seed-dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it, incidentally scattering the seeds it contains (see frugivory). While many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely, flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction, spreading (whatever its origin) to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots.^[17] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts, often separate from (but in contact with) each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern, to be bisexual (in plants, this means both male and female parts on the same flower), and to be dominated by the ovary (female part). As flowers grew more advanced, some variations developed parts fused together, with a much more specific number and design, and with either specific sexes per flower or plant, or at least "ovary-inferior". Flower evolution continues to the present day; modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. Many modern, domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds, which sprouted only when the ground was disturbed. Some of them tended to grow with human crops, perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them, and the prettiest did not get plucked because of their beauty, developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.^[18] A few paleontologists have also come up with an idea that flowering plants, or angiosperms, might have evolved due to interactions with dinosaurs. One of the idea's biggest proponents is Robert T. Bakker. He proposes that herbivorous dinosaurs, with their eating habits, provided a selective pressure on plants, for which adaptations either succeeded in deterring or coping with predation by herbivores.^[citation needed] [edit] Classification Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae magnoliids Chloranthales monocots Ceratophyllum eudicots The phylogeny of the flowering plants, as of APG III (2009).^[19] Angiospermae Amborella Nymphaeales Austrobaileyales Mesangiospermae monocots Chloranthales magnoliids Ceratophyllum eudicots Alternative phylogeny (2010)^[20] There are eight groups of living angiosperms: * Amborella, a single species of shrub from New Caledonia; * Nymphaeales, about 80 species,^[21] water lilies and Hydatellaceae; * Austrobaileyales, about 100 species^[21] of woody plants from various parts of the world; * Chloranthales, several dozen species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves; * Magnoliidae, about 9,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, pollen with one pore, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example magnolias, bay laurel, and black pepper; * Monocotyledonae, about 70,000 species,^[21] characterized by trimerous flowers, a single cotyledon, pollen with one pore, and usually parallel-veined leavesâfor example grasses, orchids, and palms; * Ceratophyllum, about 6 species^[21] of aquatic plants, perhaps most familiar as aquarium plants; * Eudicotyledonae, about 175,000 species,^[21] characterized by 4- or 5-merous flowers, pollen with three pores, and usually branching-veined leavesâfor example sunflowers, petunia, buttercup, apples, and oaks. The exact relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear, although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales.^[22] The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. The five other groups form the clade Mesangiospermae. The relationship between the three broadest of these groups (magnoliids, monocots, and eudicots) remains unclear. Some analyses make the magnoliids the first to diverge, others the monocots.^[20] Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots. [edit] History of classification From 1736, an illustration of Linnaean classification The botanical term "Angiosperm", from the Ancient Greek αγγείον, angeÃon (bottle, vessel) and ÏÏÎÏμα, (seed), was coined in the form Angiospermae by Paul Hermann in 1690, as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom. This included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules, distinguished from his Gymnospermae, or flowering plants with achenial or schizo-carpic fruits, the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked. The term and its antonym were maintained by Carolus Linnaeus with the same sense, but with restricted application, in the names of the orders of his class Didynamia. Its use with any approach to its modern scope became possible only after 1827, when Robert Brown established the existence of truly naked ovules in the Cycadeae and Coniferae, and applied to them the name Gymnosperms. From that time onward, as long as these Gymnosperms were, as was usual, reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants, the term Angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers, with varying scope, as a group-name for other dicotyledonous plants. Auxanometer: Device for measuring increase or rate of growth in plants In 1851, Hofmeister discovered the changes occurring in the embryo-sac of flowering plants, and determined the correct relationships of these to the Cryptogamia. This fixed the position of Gymnosperms as a class distinct from Dicotyledons, and the term Angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than Gymnosperms, including the classes of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. This is the sense in which the term is used today. In most taxonomies, the flowering plants are treated as a coherent group. The most popular descriptive name has been Angiospermae (Angiosperms), with Anthophyta ("flowering plants") a second choice. These names are not linked to any rank. The Wettstein system and the Engler system use the name Angiospermae, at the assigned rank of subdivision. The Reveal system treated flowering plants as subdivision Magnoliophytina (Frohne & U. Jensen ex Reveal, Phytologia 79: 70 1996), but later split it to Magnoliopsida, Liliopsida, and Rosopsida. The Takhtajan system and Cronquist system treat this group at the rank of division, leading to the name Magnoliophyta (from the family name Magnoliaceae). The Dahlgren system and Thorne system (1992) treat this group at the rank of class, leading to the name Magnoliopsida. The APG system of 1998, and the later 2003^[23] and 2009^[19] revisions, treat the flowering plants as a clade called angiosperms without a formal botanical name. However, a formal classification was published alongside the 2009 revision in which the flowering plants form the Subclass Magnoliidae.^[24] The internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision. The Cronquist system, proposed by Arthur Cronquist in 1968 and published in its full form in 1981, is still widely used but is no longer believed to accurately reflect phylogeny. A consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has recently begun to emerge through the work of the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group (APG), which published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in 1998. Updates incorporating more recent research were published as APG II in 2003^[23] and as APG III in 2009.^[19]^[25] Monocot (left) and dicot seedlings Traditionally, the flowering plants are divided into two groups, which in the Cronquist system are called Magnoliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Magnoliacae) and Liliopsida (at the rank of class, formed from the family name Liliaceae). Other descriptive names allowed by Article 16 of the ICBN include Dicotyledones or Dicotyledoneae, and Monocotyledones or Monocotyledoneae, which have a long history of use. In English a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon (plural dicotyledons) and monocotyledon (plural monocotyledons), or abbreviated, as dicot (plural dicots) and monocot (plural monocots). These names derive from the observation that the dicots most often have two cotyledons, or embryonic leaves, within each seed. The monocots usually have only one, but the rule is not absolute either way. From a diagnostic point of view, the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor a reliable character. Recent studies, as by the APG, show that the monocots form a monophyletic group (clade) but that the dicots do not (they are paraphyletic). Nevertheless, the majority of dicot species do form a monophyletic group, called the eudicots or tricolpates. Of the remaining dicot species, most belong to a third major clade known as the Magnoliidae, containing about 9,000 species. The rest include a paraphyletic grouping of primitive species known collectively as the basal angiosperms, plus the families Ceratophyllaceae and Chloranthaceae. [edit] Flowering plant diversity A poster of twelve different species of flowers of the Asteraceae family The number of species of flowering plants is estimated to be in the range of 250,000 to 400,000.^[26]^[27]^[28] This compares to around 12,000 species of moss^[29] or 11,000 species of pteridophytes,^[30] showing that the flowering plants are much more diverse. The number of families in APG (1998) was 462. In APG II^[23] (2003) it is not settled; at maximum it is 457, but within this number there are 55 optional segregates, so that the minimum number of families in this system is 402. In APG III (2009) there are 415 families.^[19] The diversity of flowering plants is not evenly distributed. Nearly all species belong to the eudicot (75%), monocot (23%), and magnoliid (2%) clades. The remaining 5 clades contain a little over 250 species in total; i.e., lesser than 0.1% of flowering plant diversity, divided among 9 families. The 42 most-diverse of 443 families of flowering plants by species,^[31] in their APG circumscriptions, are 1. Asteraceae or Compositae (daisy family): 22,750 species; 2. Orchidaceae (orchid family): 21,950; 3. Fabaceae or Leguminosae (bean family): 19,400; 4. Rubiaceae (madder family): 13,150;^[32] 5. Poaceae or Gramineae (grass family): 10,035; 6. Lamiaceae or Labiatae (mint family): 7,175; 7. Euphorbiaceae (spurge family): 5,735; 8. Melastomataceae or Melastomaceae (melastome family): 5,005; 9. Myrtaceae (myrtle family): 4,625; 10. Apocynaceae (dogbane family): 4,555; 11. Cyperaceae (sedge family): 4,350; 12. Malvaceae (mallow family): 4,225; 13. Araceae (arum family): 4,025; 14. Ericaceae (heath family): 3,995; 15. Gesneriaceae (gesneriad family): 3,870; 16. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae (parsley family): 3,780; 17. Brassicaceae or Cruciferae (cabbage family): 3,710: 18. Piperaceae (pepper family): 3,600; 19. Acanthaceae (acanthus family): 3,500; 20. Rosaceae (rose family): 2,830; 21. Boraginaceae (borage family): 2,740; 22. Urticaceae (nettle family): 2,625; 23. Ranunculaceae (buttercup family): 2,525; 24. Lauraceae (laurel family): 2,500; 25. Solanaceae (nightshade family): 2,460; 26. Campanulaceae (bellflower family): 2,380; 27. Arecaceae (palm family): 2,361; 28. Annonaceae (custard apple family): 2,220; 29. Caryophyllaceae (pink family): 2,200; 30. Orobanchaceae (broomrape family): 2,060; 31. Amaranthaceae (amaranth family): 2,050; 32. Iridaceae (iris family): 2,025; 33. Aizoaceae or Ficoidaceae (ice plant family): 2,020; 34. Rutaceae (rue family): 1,815; 35. Phyllanthaceae (phyllanthus family): 1,745; 36. Scrophulariaceae (figwort family): 1,700; 37. Gentianaceae (gentian family): 1,650; 38. Convolvulaceae (bindweed family): 1,600; 39. Proteaceae (protea family): 1,600; 40. Sapindaceae (soapberry family): 1,580; 41. Cactaceae (cactus family): 1,500; 42. Araliaceae (Aralia or ivy family): 1,450. Of these, the Orchidaceae, Poaceae, Cyperaceae, Arecaceae, and Iridaceae are monocot families; Piperaceae, Lauraceae, and Annonaceae are magnoliid (acot); the others are eudicot. [edit] Vascular anatomy Cross-section of a stem of the angiosperm flax: 1. Pith, 2. Protoxylem, 3. Xylem I, 4. Phloem I, 5. Sclerenchyma (bast fibre), 6. Cortex, 7. Epidermis The amount and complexity of tissue-formation in flowering plants exceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the xylem and phloem form concentric rings. In the dicotyledons, the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring, separating a central pith from an outer cortex. In each bundle, separating the xylem and phloem, is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium. By the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles (interfascicular cambium), a complete ring is formed, and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed, but the hard wood persists and forms the bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. Owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season, the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings, one for each season of growth, called annual rings. Among the monocotyledons, the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in exceptional cases. [edit] The flower, fruit, and seed [edit] Flowers Main articles: Flower and Plant sexuality A collection of flowers forming an inflorescence The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remarkable variation in form and elaboration, and provide the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf (where the petiole attaches to the stem). Occasionally, as in violets, a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage-leaf. More typically, the flower-bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage-bearing or vegetative portion, and forms a more or less elaborate branch-system called an inflorescence. There are two kinds of reproductive cells produced by flowers. Microspores, which will divide to become pollen grains, are the "male" cells and are borne in the stamens (or microsporophylls). The "female" cells called megaspores, which will divide to become the egg cell (megagametogenesis), are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel (or megasporophyll). The flower may consist only of these parts, as in willow, where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Usually, other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are known as sepals and petals (or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other). The outer series (calyx of sepals) is usually green and leaf-like, and functions to protect the rest of the flower, especially the bud. The inner series (corolla of petals) is, in general, white or brightly colored, and is more delicate in structure. It functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color, scent, and nectar, which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. While the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite (having both pollen and ovule producing parts in the same flower structure), flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self-fertilization. Heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens, or vice versa, so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil (receptive part of the carpel). Homomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical (physiological) mechanism called self-incompatibility to discriminate between self- and non-self pollen grains. In other species, the male and female parts are morphologically separated, developing on different flowers. [edit] Fertilization and embryogenesis Main articles: Fertilization and Plant embryogenesis Angiosperm life cycle Double fertilization refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertilize cells in the ovary. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil (female reproductive structure), germinates, and grows a long pollen tube. While this pollen tube is growing, a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid (n) sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows, it makes its way from the stigma, down the style and into the ovary. Here the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids, releasing its contents (which include the sperm cells). The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm makes its way to fertilize the egg cell, producing a diploid (2n) zygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei, producing a triploid (3n) cell. As the zygote develops into an embryo, the triploid cell develops into the endosperm, which serves as the embryo's food supply. The ovary now will develop into fruit and the ovule will develop into seed. [edit] Fruit and seed Main articles: Seed and Fruit The fruit of the Aesculus or Horse Chestnut tree As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac, the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus (which is likewise enlarging) and the integument to form the seed coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp, whose form is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. Frequently, the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary, and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit, e.g., the floral receptacle in the apple, strawberry, and others. The character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination; they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits, in general, the fruit provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. In this case, the seed coat is only slightly developed. If the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is exposed, in general, the seed-coat is well developed, and must discharge the functions otherwise executed by the fruit. [edit] Economic importance Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2012) Agriculture is almost entirely dependent upon angiosperms, which provide virtually all plant-based food, and also provide a significant amount of livestock feed. Of all the families of plants, the Poaceae, or grass family (grains), is by far the most important, providing the bulk of all feedstocks (rice, corn â maize, wheat, barley, rye, oats, pearl millet, sugar cane, sorghum). The Fabaceae, or legume family, comes in second place. Also of high importance are the Solanaceae, or nightshade family (potatoes, tomatoes, and peppers, among others), the Cucurbitaceae, or gourd family (also including pumpkins and melons), the Brassicaceae, or mustard plant family (including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species Brassica oleracea), and the Apiaceae, or parsley family. Many of our fruits come from the Rutaceae, or rue family (including oranges, lemons, grapefruits, etc.), and the Rosaceae, or rose family (including apples, pears, cherries, apricots, plums, etc.). In some parts of the world, certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses, for example the coconut (Cocos nucifera) on Pacific atolls, and the olive (Olea europaea) in the Mediterranean region. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood, paper, fiber (cotton, flax, and hemp, among others), medicines (digitalis, camphor), decorative and landscaping plants, and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants is timber production. [edit] See also Portal icon Plants portal Portal icon Botany portal Portal icon Agriculture and Agronomy portal * List of garden plants * List of plants by common name * List of plant orders * List of systems of plant taxonomy [edit] References 1. ^ Lindley, J (1830). Introduction to the Natural System of Botany. London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green. xxxvi. 2. ^ Cantino, Philip D.; James A. Doyle, Sean W. Graham, Walter S. Judd, Richard G. Olmstead, Douglas E. 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JSTOR 1554864. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content//iapt/tax/2002/00000051/00000 003/art00009.> 27. ^ Scotland, R. W. & Wortley, A. H. (2003). "How many species of seed plants are there?". Taxon 52 (1): 101â104. doi:10.2307/3647306. JSTOR 3647306. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/000000 01/art00011. 28. ^ Govaerts, R.url=http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/iapt/tax/2003/00000052/ 00000003/art00016+(2003). "How many species of seed plants are there? â a response". Taxon 52 (3): 583â584. doi:10.2307/3647457. JSTOR 3647457.^[dead link] 29. ^ Goffinet, Bernard; William R. Buck (2004). "Systematics of the Bryophyta (Mosses): From molecules to a revised classification". Monographs in Systematic Botany (Missouri Botanical Garden Press) 98: 205â239. 30. ^ Raven, Peter H., Ray F. Evert, & Susan E. Eichhorn, 2005. Biology of Plants, 7th edition. (New York: W. H. Freeman and Company). ISBN 0-7167-1007-2. 31. ^ Stevens, P.F. (2011). "Angiosperm Phylogeny Website (at Missouri Botanical Garden)". http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/welcome.html. 32. ^ "Kew Scientist 30 (October2006)". http://www.kew.org/kewscientist/ks_30.pdf. [edit] Further reading * Cronquist, Arthur (1981). An Integrated System of Classification of Flowering Plants. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 0-231-03880-1. * Heywood, V. H., Brummitt, R. K., Culham, A. & Seberg, O. (2007). Flowering Plant Families of the World. Richmond Hill, Ontario, Canada: Firefly Books. ISBN 1-55407-206-9. * Dilcher, D. (2000). "Toward a new synthesis: Major evolutionary trends in the angiosperm fossil record". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 97 (13): 7030. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.13.7030. * Simpson, M.G. Plant Systematics, 2nd Edition. Elsevier/Academic Press. 2010. * Raven, P.H., R.F. Evert, S.E. Eichhorn. Biology of Plants, 7th Edition. W.H. Freeman. 2004. [edit] External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Magnoliophyta Wikispecies has information related to: Magnoliophyta The Wikibook Dichotomous Key has a page on the topic of: Magnoliophyta * Cole, Theodor C.H.; Hilger, Dr. Harmut H. Angiosperm Phylogeny Poster â Flowering Plant Systamatics * Cromie, William J. (December 16, 1999). "Oldest Known Flowering Plants Identified By Genes". Harvard University Gazette. * Watson, L. and Dallwitz, M.J. (1992 onwards). The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, information retrieval. * Flowering plant at the Encyclopedia of Life This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. * v * t * e Botany Subdisciplines of botany * Ethnobotany * Paleobotany * Plant anatomy * Plant ecology * Plant evo-devo * Plant morphology * Plant physiology 1859-Martinique.web.jpg Plants * Evolutionary history of plants * Algae * Bryophyte * Pteridophyte * Gymnosperm * Angiosperm Plant parts * Flower * Fruit * Leaf * Meristem * Root * Stem * Stoma * Vascular tissue * Wood Plant cells * Cell wall * Chlorophyll * Chloroplast * Photosynthesis * Plant hormone * Plastid * Transpiration Plant reproduction * Alternation of generations * Gametophyte * Plant sexuality * Pollen * Pollination * Seed * Spore * Sporophyte Plant taxonomy * Botanical name * Botanical nomenclature * Herbarium * IAPT * ICN * Species Plantarum Glossaries * Glossary of botanical terms * Glossary of plant morphology * Category * Portal * v * t * e Classification of Archaeplastida / Plantae sensu lato Rhodophyta Cyanidiophyceae · Porphyridiophyceae · Compsopogonophyceae · Stylonematophyceae · Rhodellophyceae · Bangiophyceae · Florideophyceae (Hildenbrandiales, Acrochaetiales, Nemaliales, Batrachospermales, Corallinales, Gelidiales, Gracilariales, Ceramiales) Glaucocystophyceae Glaucocystis · Cyanophora · Gloeochaete Viridiplantae/ Plantae sensu stricto Chlorophyta/GA Prasinophyceae UTC clade: Ulvophyceae · Trebouxiophyceae · Chlorophyceae Streptophyta Charophyta/GA Charales · Coleochaetales · Desmidiales · Klebsormidiales · Mesostigmatales · Zygnematales Embryophyta/ Plantae sensu strictissimo Bryophytes (non-vascular) Marchantiophyta · Anthocerotophyta · Bryophyta "Moss" · Horneophytopsida Tracheophyta Lycopodiophyta Isoetopsida (Isoetales, Selaginellales) · Lycopodiopsida (Lycopodiales) Euphyllophyta Moniliformopses (Equisetopsida, Filicopsida, Psilotopsida) Spermatophyta: Gymnosperm (Pinophyta, Cycadophyta, Ginkgophyta, Gnetophyta) · Magnoliophyta See also: list of plant orders Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Flowering_plant&oldid=533330 678" Categories: * Angiosperms * Plant taxonomy * Plants * Pollination * Plant sexuality Hidden categories: * All articles with dead external links * Articles with dead external links from April 2012 * Articles with 'species' microformats * Wikipedia articles needing clarification from April 2012 * All articles with unsourced statements * Articles with unsourced statements from April 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from June 2012 * Articles with unsourced statements from February 2011 * Articles needing additional references from April 2012 * All articles needing additional references * Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with no article parameter * Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * Afrikaans * اÙعربÙØ© * Aragonés * AzÉrbaycanca * বাà¦à¦²à¦¾ * Bân-lâm-gú * Basa Banyumasan * ÐаÑҡоÑÑÑа * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ (ÑаÑаÑкевÑÑа)â * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Cymraeg * Dansk * Deutsch * Dolnoserbski * Eesti * Îλληνικά * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Gaelg * Galego * íêµì´ * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Hornjoserbsce * Hrvatski * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * á¥áá áá£áá * Kreyòl ayisyen * Kurdî * Latina * LatvieÅ¡u * Lëtzebuergesch * Lietuvių * Lumbaart * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * മലയാളഠ* Bahasa Melayu * NÄhuatl * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Nordfriisk * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Occitan * ÐлÑк маÑий * Ù¾ÙØ¬Ø§Ø¨Û * Plattdüütsch * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Runa Simi * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Sicilianu * Simple English * SlovenÄina * SlovenÅ¡Äina * СÑпÑки / srpski * Srpskohrvatski / ÑÑпÑкоÑÑваÑÑки * Suomi * Svenska * Tagalog * தமிழ௠* à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * Lea faka-Tonga * Türkçe * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ارد٠* Vepsän kelâ * Tiếng Viá»t * ××Ö´××ש * Zazaki * ŽemaitÄÅ¡ka * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 16 January 2013 at 06:53. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Advertisement. EnchantedLearning.com is a user-supported site. As a bonus, site members have access to a banner-ad-free version of the site, with print-friendly pages. Click here to learn more. Join Enchanted Learning Site subscriptions last 12 months. Click here for more information on site membership. As low as $20.00/year (directly by Credit Card) Click Here to Subscribe by Credit Card Site members have access to the entire website with print-friendly pages and no ads. (Already a member? Click here.) Our subscribers' grade-level estimate for this page: 4th - 5th [labelsmall.GIF] Plant Anatomy: Label Me! Printout EnchantedLearning.com Plant Anatomy Go to Plant Printouts Tree Anatomy Tree Anatomy: Label Me! Printout peanut plant A plant is a member of the kingdom Plantae, a living organism that utilizes photosynthesis, a process in which energy from sunlight is converted to chemical energy (food). Plants are at the base of the food web and are autotrophs (or producers - organisms that make their own food). Plants vary greatly in size, shape, and the type of environment in which they live. Structure and Function: Roots anchor the plant in the ground and absorb water and mineral nutrients from the ground. Leaves contain chloroplasts, in which photosynthesis occurs. Carbon dioxide is absorbed through pores in the leaves; oxygen is produced as a byproduct of photosynthesis and is released. Plant cells have a supportive cellulose cell wall (unlike animal cells which lack cellulose). The following is a diagram of the external anatomy of a typical flowering plant: [anatomy.GIF] axil - the angle between the upper side of the stem and a leaf, branch, or petiole. axillary bud - a bud that develops in the axil. flower - the reproductive unit of angiosperms. flower stalk - the structure that supports the flower. internode - the area of the stem between any two adjacent nodes. lateral shoot (branch) - an offshoot of the stem of a plant. leaf - an outgrowth of a plant that grows from a node in the stem. Most leaves are flat and contain chloroplasts; their main function is to convert energy from sunlight into chemical energy (food) through photosynthesis. node - the part of the stem of a plant from which a leaf, branch, or aerial root grows; each plant has many nodes. Label the two lower nodes (the first and second nodes) on the plant diagram. petiole - a leaf stalk; it attaches the leaf to the plant. root - a root is a plant structure that obtains food and water from the soil, stores energy, and provides support for the plant. Most roots grow underground. root cap - a structure at the ends (tips) of the roots. It covers and protects the apical meristem (the actively growing region) of the root. stem - (also called the axis) is the main support of the plant. tap root - the main root of some plants; the tap root extends straight down under the plant. terminal bud - a bud located at the apex (tip) of the stem. Terminal buds have special tissue, called apical meristem, consisting of cells that can divide indefinitely. Phyla: The phyla in the kingdom Plantae include: Ginkgophyta, Lycophyta (lower ferns like club mosses), Pterophyta (ferns), Psilophyta (whisk ferns), Anthophyta (flowering plants), Gnetophyta, Sphenophyta, Coniferophyta (conifers), Cycadophyta (cycads), Sphenophyta, and Bryophyta (mosses, liverworts, hornworts). fir Plant Printouts EnchantedLearning.com Botany and Paleobotany Dictionary yucca Plants A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Click on an underlined word for more information on that subject. 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Advertisement. __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Copyright (c)2000-2010 EnchantedLearning.com ------ How to cite a web page #7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 front page Index 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Search 7th PLANT BIOMECHANICS CONFERENCE 2012 Copyright Printable version Search Search ____________________ GO logo INRA Partenaires-TOP Identify yourself * Home page * Sessions * Keynotes * Program / Guideline * Submission * Registration 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference 2012 home page 7th Plant Biomechanics International Conference (20-24 August 2012) 20-24 August 2012 Centre Diocésain 133 Avenue République 63051 Clermont-Ferrand, France What is Plant Biomechanics ? Plant Biomechanics is the study of the structures and functions of biological systems from the plant phylum (Plantae) with the help of concepts and methods of mechanics [1-5] (....) Read more ( into a pdf file) The Plant Biomechanics International Conferences : Plant biomechanics is an expanding interdisciplinary field, at the interfaces of biology, mechanics, physics and engineering. Despite its broad range of studies, it has long been felt that the researchers dealing with biomechanics have a lot to share. The first Plant Biomechanics International Conference was organized in Montpellier (France) in 1994. The 2^nd PBMIC was held in 1997 in Reading (UK), the 3^rd in 2000, in Badenweiler (Germany), the 4^th in 2003 was in Lansing (MI USA), the 5^th in 2006 was in Stockholm (Sweden), the 6^th in 2009 was in Cayenne (FG) in South America Over the years, the Plant Biomechanics International Conference has become the central event of the Plant Biomechanics research community, as well as a unique place for interdisciplinary exchanges around the amazing features that Plants have evolved to sense, acclimate and adapt to the mechanical challenges they have been submitted to. Welcome to Plant-BioMech 2012 in Clermont–Ferrand ! On behalf of all the French Plant Biomechanics community and of our International Board , Scientific and Organizing Committees, we are thus pleased to invite you to Clermont-Ferrand (France) to participate in the 7^th Plant Biomechanics International Conference. In the centre of Europe's largest regional nature park (the Auvergne Volcanoes Regional Nature Park) and in the historic and active city of Clermont-Ferrand, you will enjoy the interactive overview over the research on plant biomechanics and mechanobiology from all over the world. We are really looking forward to meet you there! Dr Bruno Moulia, Dr Meriem Fournier Chairs of PBMC 2012 News Poster award All the posters have been reviewed and rated by an award committee (members of IAB and session organizers). Each day, the two highest scoring posters according to the following criteria have been awarded. Read more Important Facts The REGISTRATION is CLOSED since July 15 2012 . To see the FINAL PROGRAM go to Program/Guideline Read more Pour les Francophones et le Grand Public La Biomécanique traite des effets physiques et biologiques des sollicitations mécaniques externes (vent, courants aquatiques) et internes (turgescence, pressions tissulaires) sur le développement et le fonctionnement des plantes Read more General Chairs Int. Advisory Board Scient. Committee Org. Committee Partners Accommodation Social Program Touristic Info Access Plan Restricted Access * cadenas Scientific committee space * cadenas Organizers space www.inra.fr © INRA 2011 Contact | Legal-notice * Skip to navigation (Press Enter). * Skip to main content (Press Enter). * + + About the Institute o Profile o Organization # Scientific Advisory Board # Board of Trustees o History o Scienctific Organizational Chart + Research o Scientific Departments # Department of Plant Developmental Biology @ Groups # Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics @ Groups # Department of Plant Microbe Interactions @ Research Highlights @ Groups @ Research Groups affiliated with the Department @ Computational Biology @ Fungal Genomes @ Are you interested in joining our research teams? # Department of Comparative Development and Genetics o Independent Research Groups o Groups A - Z + Graduates o IMPRS o PhDs + Postdocs + Services o Scientific Service Groups o General Service Groups o Childcare + Reports and Publications o Publications o Annual Reports o Yearbook + Public Outreach + News o Paul Schulze-Lefert was awarded an ERC advanced grant o Press Releases o Event Calender o News Archive + Contact + Intranet ____________________ Submit * Contact * Sitemap * Intranet * * Deutsch * Home Information for Students Guests Journalists Alumnis Job Opportunities Job Offers * Postdoctoral position on axillary meristem formation in barley December 18, 2012 * 14 Doctoral Studentships December 13, 2012 More Job opportunities in German Events Events * Genetic and Genomic Dissection of Maize Root System Development 30 Jan 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * The genomic organization of virulence in the vascular wilt fungus Fusarium oxysporum 06 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * Next generation plant phenotyping 13 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall * Molecular genetic control of root system architecture - from the wild to the lab and back again 20 Feb 2013 11:30 am - 12:30 pm Location: lecture hall News * Support of the MPIPZ International Max Planck Research School granted for another 6 years December 05, 2012 * European research council (ERC) awarded an ERC advanced grant to Paul Schulze-Lefert November 12, 2012 * Symposium Next Generation Plant Science 2012 November 07, 2012 Research News * Differences in the genomes of related plant pathogens August 12, 2012 * Bacterial community inside the plant root August 02, 2012 * An international consortium sequences the tomtato genome May 30, 2012 * Early flowering caused by faulty biological clock May 14, 2012 * Pod corn develops leaves in the inflorescences April 24, 2012 * Plants use mobile proteins to defend themselves against bacteria December 09, 2011 Profile The Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research conducts basic molecular biological research on plants with the goal of developing more efficient breeding techniques and environmentally sound plant protection strategies for industrial crops. [more] Teaser_image_horizontal Department of Plant Developmental Biology Plants spend their life in one position, and thrive in locations where they are exposed to a wide variety of environmental conditions. This versatility is possible because plants continuously monitor and respond to environmental stimuli such as light, temperature and the availability of nutrients. Such responses alter the growth habit and form of the plant adapting it to its particular environment. [more] Intro_dpt_koornneef_neu_322_191 Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics The genetic diversity between plant species is huge as observed by the large differences in many traits. However also within species substantial genetic variation is present in nature or has been generated by breeders and researchers. Mildew_haustorium3_bearb_richard_322_jpg Department of Plant Microbe Interactions Research in the department of Plant Microbe Interactions engages in fundamental molecular processes underlying interactions between plants and pathogens. The innate immune system of plants and mechanisms of microbial pathogenesis have a central role in our discovery program. [more] Mt_hpage_322x191_160712 Department of Comparative Development and Genetics Research in the Department of Comparative Development and Genetics aims to attain a predictive understanding of how biological forms develop and diversify, by using a combination of genetics, biological imaging, genomics and computational modelling. To empower their work scientists in the Department developed Cardamine hirsuta- a small crucifer related to the reference plant Arabidopsis thaliana- into a powerful genetic system. Comparative studies between these two species and other seed plants aids them in uncovering the mechanistic basis for plant diversity and helps them formulate general hypotheses about how morphology evolves. [more] (c) 2003-2013, Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Muenchen * Imprint * Recommend * Print http://www.mpipz.mpg.de/2169/en loading content Skip to main content __________________________________________________________________ Cornell University Cornell University Animal Science SEARCH: ____________________ go (*) Animal Science ( ) Cornell more options __________________________________________________________________ Plants Poisonous to Livestock __________________________________________________________________ * Home Page * Search Database * Find:-by botanical name-by common name * Scientific & Common Name Equivalents * Toxic Agents * Commonly Affected Species * Medicinal Plants * FAQs * Other Sites Plants Poisonous to Livestock and other Animals This is a growing reference that includes plant images, pictures of affected animals and presentations concerning the botany, chemistry, toxicology, diagnosis and prevention of poisoning of animals by plants and other natural flora (fungi, etc.). [a_muscaria_s.jpg] IMPORTANT:Just because something is on the poisonous plants list doesn't mean it can't be a good food or feed, and just because it is absent from the list doesn't mean it is safe! Many original images were provided by Dr. Mary C. Smith of the Cornell College of Veterinary Medicine. Additional images, text and web pages by Dan Brown and staff. The students of Nutritional Toxicology (Animal Science 625) have also made large contributions through web pages created as term projects. The frequently asked questions is a compilation of some of the questions we have received via email over the years. These pages are maintained by the Animal Science Department at Cornell University as a reference only. We have no physicians on staff to answer one-on-one questions about specific plants or poisons, especially as they apply to humans. We suggest you contact your local state or regional poison control center. For information on who to call or email in your area, visit Poison Control and Prevention Center Directory. Of course, if you have someone who has collapsed or has trouble breathing, you should call 911 before searching for a poison control center. For questions regarding the accuracy of the content of these pages, contact Dan Brown . (c)2013 Cornell University | CALS Home | Animal Science Home | Contact Webmaster | #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Succulent plant From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search Not to be confused with cactus; botanically cacti are succulents but not all succulents are cacti. Succulent plants, such as this Aloe, store water in their fleshy leaves In botany, succulent plants, also known as succulents or sometimes fat plants, are plants having some parts that are more than normally thickened and fleshy, usually to retain water in arid climates or soil conditions. Succulent plants may store water in various structures, such as leaves and stems. Some definitions also include roots, so that geophytes that survive unfavourable periods by dying back to underground storage organs may be regarded as succulents. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" is often used in a way which excludes plants that botanists would regard as succulents, such as cacti. Succulents are grown as ornamental plants because of their striking and unusual appearance. Contents * 1 Definition * 2 Appearance * 3 Habitat * 4 Evolution * 5 Families and genera * 6 See also * 7 References * 8 Bibliography * 9 External links [edit] Definition There are a number of somewhat different definitions of the term "succulent". One difference lies in whether or not roots are included in the parts of a plant which make it a succulent. Some authors include roots, as in the definition "plants in which the leaves, stem or roots have become more than usually fleshy by the development of water-storing tissue."^[1] Others exclude roots, as in the definition "a plant with thick, fleshy and swollen stems and/or leaves, adapted to dry environments".^[2] This difference affects the relationship between succulents and "geophytes" â plants that survive unfavourable seasons as a resting bud on an underground organ.^[3] These underground organs, such as bulbs, corms and tubers, are often fleshy with water-storing tissues. Thus if roots are included in the definition, many geophytes would be classed as succulents. Plants adapted to living in dry environments are termed "xerophytes"; thus succulents are often xerophytes. However, not all xerophytes are succulents, since there are other ways of adapting to a shortage of water, e.g. by developing small leaves which may roll up or having leathery rather than succulent leaves.^[4] Nor are all succulents xerophytes, since plants like Crassula helmsii are both succulent and aquatic.^[5] Those who grow succulents as a hobby use the term in a different way to botanists. In horticultural use, the term "succulent" regularly excludes cacti. For example, Jacobsen's three volume Handbook of Succulent Plants does not cover cacti,^[6] and "cacti and succulents" is the title or part of the title of many books covering the cultivation of these plants.^[7]^[8]^[9] However, in botanical terminology, cacti are succulents.^[1] Horticulturalists may also exclude other groups of plants, e.g. bromeliads.^[10] A practical, but unscientific, horticultural definition is "a succulent plant is any desert plant that a succulent plant collector wishes to grow".^[11] Such plants less often include geophytes (in which the swollen storage organ is wholly underground) but do include plants with a caudex,^[12] which is a swollen above-ground organ at soil level, formed from a stem, a root or both.^[3] A further difficulty is that plants are not either "succulent" or "non-succulent". In many genera and families there is a continuous sequence from plants with thin leaves and normal stems to those with very clearly thickened and fleshy leaves or stems, so that deciding what is a succulent is often arbitrary. Different sources may classify the same plant differently.^[13] [edit] Appearance A collection of succulent plants, including cacti The storage of water often gives succulent plants a more swollen or fleshy appearance than other plants, a characteristic known as succulence. In addition to succulence, succulent plants variously have other water-saving features. These may include: * Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) to minimize water loss * absent, reduced, or cylindrical-to-spherical leaves * reduction in the number of stomata * stems as the main site of photosynthesis, rather than leaves * compact, reduced, cushion-like, columnar, or spherical growth form * ribs enabling rapid increases in plant volume and decreasing surface area exposed to the sun * waxy, hairy, or spiny outer surface to create a humid micro-habitat around the plant, which reduces air movement near the surface of the plant, and thereby reduces water loss and creates shade * roots very near the surface of the soil, so they are able to take up moisture from very small showers or even from heavy dew * ability to remain plump and full of water even with high internal temperatures (e.g. 52 °C/126 °F)^[14] * very impervious outer cuticle (skin)^[14] * mucilaginous substances, which retain water abundantly^[14] [edit] Habitat Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) Many succulents come from the dry areas of the tropics and subtropics, such as steppes, semi-desert, and desert. High temperatures and low precipitation force plants to collect and store water to survive long dry periods. Succulents also occur as epiphytes, "air plants", as such they have limited or no contact with the ground, and are dependent on their ability to store water. Succulents also occur as inhabitants of sea coasts and dry lakes, which are exposed to high levels of dissolved minerals that are deadly to many other plant species. [edit] Evolution Question book-new.svg This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (January 2013) The best-known succulents are cacti (family: Cactaceae). Virtually all cacti are succulents, but not all succulents are cacti. A unique feature of cacti is the possession of areoles, structures from which spines and flowers are produced. To differentiate between these two basic types that seem so similar, but that are unrelated succulent plants, use of the terms, cactus or cacti, only should be used to describe succulents in the cactus family. Popular collection of these types of plants has led to many Old World plants becoming established in the wild in the New World, and vice versa. [edit] Families and genera This section includes a list of references, related reading or external links, but the sources of this section remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2012) Apocynaceae: Pachypodium lealii, stem succulent Asphodelaceae: Haworthia arachnoidea, leaf succulent Cactaceae: Rebutia muscula, stem succulent Crassulaceae: Crassula ovata, stem and leaf succulent Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia obesa ssp. symmetrica, stem succulent Cylindropuntia imbricata: stem, woody succulent Malvaceae: Adansonia digitata, stem succulent Moringaceae: Moringa ovalifolia, stem succulent Nolinaceae: Beaucarnea recurvata, stem succulent Asparagaceae: Dracaena draco, stem succulent Euphorbia resinifera Plant families and genera in which succulent species occur are listed below. Order Alismatales * Araceae: Zamioculcas Order Apiales * Apiaceae: Steganotaenia * Araliaceae: Cussonia Order Asparagales * Amaryllidaceae (geophytes): Ammocharis, Apodolirion, Boophone, Brunsvigia, Crinum, Crossyne, Cryptostephanus, Cyrtanthus, Gethyllis, Habranthus, Haemanthus, Hessea, Nerine, Pancratium, Rauhia, Scadoxus, Strumaria, Zephyranthes, * Asparagaceae + subfamily Agavoideae: Agave, Beschorneria, Chlorophytum, Furcraea, Hesperaloe, Hesperoyucca, Yucca + subfamily Asparagoideae: Myrsiphyllum (now Asparagus) + subfamily Lomandroideae: Cordyline, + subfamily Nolinoideae: Beaucarnea, Calibanus, Dasylirion, Dracaena (plant), Nolina, Sansevieria,Eriospermum (geophyte) + subfamily Scilloideae (geophytes, a few succulent geophytes): Albuca, Bowiea, Daubenya, Dipcadi, Drimia, Drimiopsis, Eucomis, Hyacinthus, Lachenalia, Ledebouria, Litanthus, Massonia, Merwilla, Namophila, Ornithogalum, Polyxena, Pseudogaltonia, Pseudoprospero, Resnova, Rhadamanthus, Rhodocodon, Schizobasis, Schizocarphus, Spetaea, Urginea, Veltheimia, Whiteheadia * Doryanthaceae: Doryanthes * Hypoxidaceae (geophytes): Empodium, Hypoxis, Pauridia, Saniella, Spiloxene * Iridaceae (geophytes): Babiana, Chasmanthe, Crocosmia, Devia, Dierama, Dietes, Duthiastrum, Ferraria, Freesia, Geissorhiza, Gladiolus, Hesperantha, Ixia, Lapeirousia, Melasphaerula, Micranthus, Moraea, Pillansia, Radinosiphon, Romulea, Sparaxis, Syringodea, Thereianthus, Tritonia, Tritoniopsis, Watsonia, Xenoscapa * Orchidaceae (succulents) Acampe, Aerangis, Ansellia, Bolusiella, Bulbophyllum, Calanthe, Cyrtorchis, Oberonia, Polystachya, Tridactyle, Vanilla (succulent geophytes) Eulophia, Liparis, Oeceoclades (geophytes) Acroliphia, Bartholina, Bonatea, Brachycorythis, Brownleea, Centrostigma, Ceratandra, Corycium, Cynorkis, Didymoplexis, Disa, Disperis, Dracomonticola, Eulophia, Evotella, Gastrodia, Habernaria, Holothrix, Huttonaea, Neobolusia, Nervilia, Plicosepalus, Pachites, Platycoryne * + subfamily Epidendroideae Phalaenopsis * Xanthorrheaceae Xanthorrhoea + subfamily Asphodelaceae: Aloe (succulents and succulent geophytes), Astroloba, x Astroworthia, Bulbine (succulent geophytes, succulents, and geophytes), Bulbinella (geophyte), Chortolirion (succulent geophytes), Gasteria, Haworthia, Poellnitzia, Trachyandra (succulent geophytes and succulents), Order Asterales * Asteraceae: Arctotheca, Baeriopsis, Cadiscus, Chrysanthemoides, Coulterella, Crassocephalum, Didelta, Emilia, Eremothamnus, Gymnodiscus, Gynura, Hillardiella (geophyte), Lopholaena, Monoculus, Nidorella, Osteospermum, Othonna (succulents and succulent geophytes), Phaneroglossa, Poecilolepis, Polyachyrus, Pteronia, Senecio, Solanecio,Tripteris * Campanulaceae: Brighamia Order Brassicales * Brassicaceae: Heliophila, Lepidium * Capparidaceae: Maerua * Caricaceae: Carica, Jacarathia * Moringaceae: Moringa Order Caryophyllales * Aizoaceae: Corbichonia, Gisekia, Herreanthus, Limeum, Ophthalmophyllum, Saphesia + subfamily Aizooideae: Acrosanthes, Aizoanthemum, Aizoon, Galenia, Gunniopsis, Plinthus, Tetragonia + subfamily Mesembryanthemoideae (syn. Mesembryanthemaceae^[15]): Amoebophyllum (non-current), Aptenia, Aridaria, Aspazoma, Berrisfordia (non-current), Brownanthus, Calamophyllum, Caulipsilon, Dactylopsis,Ectotropis (non-current), Eurystigma (non-current), Halenbergia (non-current),Hameria, Hartmanthus, Herrea (non-current), Herreanthus (now Conophytum), Hydrodea (non-current), Hymenogyne, Kensitia (non-current),Marlothistela, Maughaniella (non-current), Mesembryanthemum, Micropterum (non-current), Mimetophytum(non-current), Neorhine (non-current), Nycteranthus (non-current), Pherelobus (non-current), Phiambolia, Phyllobolus, Platythyra (non-current), Prenia, Psicaulon, Ruschiella, Sarozona,Sceletium, Semnanthe (now Erepsia), Sphalmanthus (non-current),Synaptophyllum + subfamily Ruschioideae: o tribe Apatesieae: Apatesia, Carpanthea, Caryotophora, Conicosia, Hymenogyne, Saphesia, Skiatophytum o tribe Dorotheantheae: Aethephyllum Cleretum Dorotheanthus o tribe Ruschiae: Acrodon, Aloinopsis, Amphibolia, Antegibbaeum, Antimima, Arenifera, Argyroderma, Astridia, Bergeranthus, Bijlia, Braunsia, Brianhuntleya, Carpobrotus, Carruanthus, Cephalophyllum, Cerochlamys, Chasmatophyllum, Cheiridopsis, Circandra, Conophytum, Corpuscularia, Cylindrophyllum, Delosperma, Dicrocaulon, Didymaotus, Dinteranthus, Diplosoma, Disphyma, Dracophilus, Drosanthemum, Eberlanzia, Ebracteola, Enarganthe, Erepsia, Esterhuysenia, Faucaria, Fenestraria, Frithia, Gibbaeum, Glottiphyllum, Hallianthus, Hereroa, Ihlenfeldtia, Imitaria, Jacobsenia, Jensenobotrya, Jordaaniella, Juttadinteria, Khadia, Lampranthus, Lapidaria (plant), Leipoldtia, Lithops, Machairophyllum, Malephora, Mestoklema, Meyerophytum, Mitrophyllum, Monilaria, Mossia, Muiria, Namaquanthus, Namibia, Nananthus, Nelia, Neohenricia, Octopoma, Odontophorus (plant), Oophytum, Ophthalmophyllum, Orthopterum, Oscularia, Ottosonderia, Pleiospilos, Polymita, Psammophora, Rabiea, Rhinephyllum, Rhombophyllum, Ruschia, Ruschianthemum, Ruschianthus, Schlechteranthus, Schwantesia, Scopelogena, Smicrostigma, Stayneria, Stoeberia, Stomatium Tanquana Titanopsis, Trichodiadema, Vanheerdea, Vanzijlia, Vlokia, Wooleya, Zeuktophyllum + subfamily Sesuvioideae: Cypselea, Sesuvium, Trianthema, Tribulocarpus, Zaleya * Amaranthaceae: + subfamily Amaranthoideae: Arthraerva + subfamily Chenopodiaceae^[16]: Atriplex, Chenopodium, Dissocarpus, Einadia, Enchylaena, Eremophea, Halopeplis, Maireana, Malacocera, Neobassia, Osteocarpum, Rhagodia, Roycea, Halosarcia, Salicornia, Salsola, Sarcocornia, Sclerochlamys, Sclerolaena, Sueda, Tecticornia, Threlkeldia * Basellaceae: Anredera, Basella * Cactaceae: Acanthocalycium, Acanthocereus, Ariocarpus, Armatocereus, Arrojadoa, Arthrocereus, Astrophytum, Austrocactus, Aztekium, Bergerocactus, Blossfeldia, Brachycereus, Browningia, Brasilicereus, Calymmanthium, Carnegiea, Cephalocereus, Cephalocleistocactus, Cereus, Cintia, Cipocereus, Cleistocactus, Coleocephalocereus, Copiapoa, Corryocactus, Coryphantha, Dendrocereus, Denmoza, Discocactus, Disocactus, Echinocactus, Echinocereus, Echinopsis, Epiphyllum, Epithelantha, Eriosyce, Escobaria, Escontria, Espostoa, Espostoopsis, Eulychnia, Facheiroa, Ferocactus, Frailea, Geohintonia, Gymnocalycium, Haageocereus, Harrisia, Hatiora, Hylocereus, Jasminocereus, Lasiocereus, Leocereus, Lepismium, Leptocereus, Leuchtenbergia, Lophophora, Maihuenia, Malacocarpus, Mammillaria, Mammilloydia, Matucana, Melocactus, Micranthocereus, Mila, Monvillea, Myrtillocactus, Neobuxbaumia, Neolloydia, Neoraimondia, Neowerdermannia, Obregonia, Opuntia, Oreocereus, Oroya, Ortegocactus, Pachycereus, Parodia, Pediocactus, Pelecyphora, Peniocereus, Pereskia, Pereskiopsis, Pilosocereus, Polaskia, Praecereus, Pseudoacanthocereus, Pseudorhipsalis, Pterocactus, Pygmaeocereus, Quiabentia, Rauhocereus, Rebutia, Rhipsalis, Samaipaticereus, Schlumbergera, Sclerocactus, Selenicereus, Stenocactus, Stenocereus, Stephanocereus, Stetsonia, Strombocactus, Tacinga, Thelocactus,Trichocereus Turbinicarpus, Uebelmannia, Weberbauerocereus, Weberocereus, Yungasocereus * Didiereaceae: Alluaudia, Alluaudiopsis, Decaria, Didierea * Molluginaceae: Hypertelis * Phytolaccaceae: Phytolacca * Portulacaceae: Amphipetalum, Anacampseros, Avonia, Calyptrotheca, Ceraria, Cistanthe, Calandrinia, Dendroportulaca, Grahamia, Lewisia, Parakeelya (this name is not accepted by the Australian State and National Herbaria),^[17] Portulaca, Portulacaria, Schreiteria, Talinella, Talinum Order Commelinales * Commelinaceae: Aneilema, Callisia, Cyanotis, Tradescantia, Tripogandra Order Cornales * Loasaceae: Schismocarpus Order Cucurbitales * Begoniaceae: Begonia * Cucurbitaceae: Acanthosicyos, Apodanthera, Brandegea, Cephalopentandra, Ceratosanthes, Citrullus, Coccinia, Corallocarpus, Cucumella, Cucumis, Cucurbita, Cyclantheropsis, Dactyliandra, Dendrosicyos, Doyera, Eureindra, Fevillea, Gerrandanthus, Gynostemma, Halosicyos, Ibervilla, Kedostris, Lagenaria, Marah, Momordica, Neoalsomitra, Odosicyos, Parasicyos, Syrigia, Telfairia, Trochomeria, Trochomeriopsis, Tumamoca, Xerosicyos, Zehneria, Zygosicyos Order Diascoreales * Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea (geophytic succulent) Order Ericales * Balsaminaceae: Impatiens * Ericaceae: Sphyrospermum * Fouquieriaceae: Fouquieria Order Fabales * Fabaceae: Delonix, Dolichos, Erythrina, Lotononis, Neorautanenia, Pachyrhizus, Tylosema Order Gentianales * Apocynaceae: Adenium, Mandevilla, Pachypodium, Plumeria + subfamily Asclepiadoideae (syn. Asclepiadaceae): Absolmsia, Australluma, Aspidoglossum, Aspidonepsis, Baynesia, Brachystelma, Ceropegia, Chlorocyathus, Cibirhiza, Cordylogyne, Cynanchum, Dischidia, Dischidiopsis, Duvaliandra, Eustegia, Fanninia, Fockea, Glossostelma, Hoya, Ischnolepis, Lavrania, Marsdenia, Miraglossum, Odontostelma, Ophionella, Orbeanthus, Pachycarpus, Parapodium (plant), Periglossum, Petopentia, Raphionacme (geophyte), Riocreuxia, Sarcorrhiza, Schizoglossum, Schlechterella, Stathmostelma, Stenostelma, Stomatostemma, Trachycalymma, Trichocaulon, Tylophora, Woodia, Xysmalobium o tribe Asclepiadeae: # subtribe Asclepiadne: Asclepias, # subtribe Cynanchinae: Sarcostemma, # subtribe Gonolobinae: Matelea, o tribe Maxillarieae: # subtribe Lycastinae: Rudolfiella o tribe Stapeliae: Angolluma, Caralluma, Desmidorchis, Duvalia, Echidnopsis, Edithcolea, Frerea, Hoodia, Huernia, Huerniopsis, Larryleachia, Notechidnopsis, Orbea (plant), Orbeopsis, Piaranthus, Pachycymbium, Pectinaria, Pseudolithos, Pseudopectinaria, Quaqua, Rhytidocaulon, Stapelia, Stapelianthus, Stapeliopsis, Tavaresia, Tridentea, Tromotriche, Whitesloanea + subfamily Periplocoideae: o tribe Cryptolepideae: Cryptolepis * Rubiaceae: Anthorrhiza, Anthospermum, Hydnophythum, Hydrophylax, Myrmecodia, Myrmephythum, Phylohydrax, Squamellaria Order Geraniales * Geraniaceae: Monsonia, Pelargonium (succulents and geophytes), Sarcocaulon Order Lamiales * Gesneriaceae: Aeschynanthus, Alsobia, Chirita, Codonanthe, Columnea, Nematanthus, Sinningia, Streptocarpus * Lamiaceae: Aeollanthus, Dauphinea, Perrierastrum, Plectranthus, Rotheca, Solenostemon, Tetradenia, Thorncroftia * Lentibulariaceae * Pedaliaceae: Holubia, Pterodiscus, Sesamothamnus, Uncarina Order Malpighiales * Euphorbiaceae: Cnidoscolus, Euphorbia, Jatropha, Monadenium, Pedilanthus, Phyllanthus, Synadenium * Passifloraceae: Adenia * Phyllanthaceae: Phyllanthus Order Malvales * Cochlospermaceae * Malvaceae: Adansonia, Cavanillesia, Ceiba, Pseudobombax * + subgroup Sterculiaceae: Brachychiton, Sterculia Order Myrtales * Melastomataceae: Medinilla Order Oxalidales * Oxalidaceae (geophytes): Oxalis Order Piperales * Piperaceae: Peperomia Order Poales * Bromeliaceae: Abromeitiella, Aechmea, Ananas, Catopsis, Connellia, Dyckia, Hechtia, Neoregelia, Puya (genus), Tillandsia, Vriesea * Poaceae: Dregeochloa^[18] Order Ranunculales * Menispermaceae: Chasmanthera, Stephania, Tinospora Order Rosales * Moraceae: Dorstenia, Ficus * Urticaceae: Laportea, Obetia, Pilea, Pouzolzia, Sarcopilea Order Santalales * Loranthaceae: Actinanthella, Agelanthus, Erianthemum, Helixanthera, Moquiniella, Oncocalyx, Pedistylis, Plicosepalus, Septulina, Tapinanthus, Vanwykia * Viscaceae(synonym Santalaceae): Viscum Order Sapindales * Anacardiaceae: Operculicaria, Pachycormus * Burseraceae: Boswellia, Bursera, Commiphora * Meliaceae: Entandrophragma * Sapindaceae: Erythrophysa Order Saxifragales * Crassulaceae: Adromischus, Aeonium, Afrovivella, Aichryson, Bryophyllum, Cotyledon, Crassula, Cremnophila, à Cremnosedum, Dudleya, Echeveria, Graptopetalum, Greenovia, Hylotelephium, Hypagophytum, Jovibarba, Kalanchoe, Lenophyllum, Meterostachys, Monanthes, Orostachys, Pachyphytum, Perrierosedum, Phedimus, Pistorinia, Prometheum, Pseudosedum, Rhodiola, Rosularia, Sedella, Sedum, Sempervivum, Sinocrassula, Thompsonella, Tacitus, Tylecodon, Umbilicus, Villadia * Saxifragaceae Order Solanales * Convolvulaceae: Ipomea, Merremia, Stictocardia, Turbina * Solanaceae: Nolana Order Vitales * Vitaceae: Cissus, Cyphostemma Order Zygophyllales * Zygophyllaceae: Augea, Seetzenia, Zygophyllum (unplaced order)* Boraginaceae: Heliotropium (unplaced order)* Icacinaceae: Pyrenacantha (geophyte) For some families, most members are succulent; for example the Cactaceae, Agavaceae, Aizoaceae, and Crassulaceae. The table below shows the number of succulent species found in some families: Family Succulent # Modified parts Distribution Agavaceae 300 Leaf North and Central America Cactaceae 1600 Stem (root, leaf) The Americas Crassulaceae 1300 Leaf (root) Worldwide Aizoaceae 2000 Leaf Southern Africa, Australia Apocynaceae 500 Stem Africa, Arabia, India, Australia Didiereaceae 11 Stem Madagascar (endemic) Euphorbiaceae > 1000 Stem and/or leaf and/or root Australia, Africa, Madagascar, Asia, the Americas, Europe Asphodelaceae 500 Leaf Africa, Madagascar, Australia Portulacaceae ? Leaf and stem The Americas, Australia, Africa [edit] See also * Crassulacean acid metabolism * Cactus and Succulent Society of America [edit] References 1. ^ ^a ^b Rowley 1980, p. 1 2. ^ Beentje 2010, p. 116 3. ^ ^a ^b Beentje 2010, p. 32 4. ^ "xerophyte", Dictionary of Botany, 2001 onwards, http://botanydictionary.org/xerophyte.html, retrieved 2012-09-23 5. ^ "Crassula helmsii (aquatic plant, succulent)", Global Invasive Species Database, ISSG, April 15, 2010, http://www.issg.org/database/species/ecology.asp?si=1517&fr=1&sts=s ss&lang=EN, retrieved 2012-09-23 6. ^ Jacobsen 1960 7. ^ Anderson 1999 8. ^ Hecht 1994 9. ^ Hewitt 1993 10. ^ Innes & Wall 1995 11. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977 12. ^ Martin & Chapman 1977, pp. 19-20 13. ^ Rowley 1980, p. 2 14. ^ ^a ^b ^c Compton n.d. 15. ^ Plants of Southern Africa Retrieved on 2010-1-1 16. ^ FloraBase - The Western Australian Flora Retrieved on 2010-1-1 17. ^ Australian Plant Names Index Retrieved on 2010-1-1 18. ^ PlantZAfrica Retrieved on 2010-1-1 [edit] Bibliography * Anderson, Miles (1999), Cacti and Succulents : Illustrated Encyclopedia, Oxford: Sebastian Kelly, ISBN 978-1-84081-253-4 * Beentje, Henk (2010), The Kew Plant Glossary, Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, ISBN 978-1-84246-422-9 * Compton, R.H., ed. (n.d.), Our South African Flora, Cape Times Ltd, OCLC 222867742 (publication date also given as 1930s or 1940s) * Hecht, Hans (1994), Cacti & Succulents (p/b ed.), New York: Sterling, ISBN 978-0-8069-0549-5 * Hewitt, Terry (1993), The Complete Book of Cacti & Succulents, London: Covent Garden Books, ISBN 978-1-85605-402-7 * Innes, Clive & Wall, Bill (1995), Cacti, Succulents and Bromeliads, London: Cassell for the Royal Horticultural Society, ISBN 978-0-304-32076-9 * Jacobsen, Hermann (1960), A Handbook of Succulent Plants (Vols 1â3), Poole, Dorset: Blandford Press, ISBN 978-0-7137-0140-1 * Martin, Margaret J. & Chapman, Peter R. (1977), Succulents and their cultivation, London: Faber & Faber, ISBN 978-0-571-10221-1 * Rowley, Gordon D. (1980), Name that Succulent, Cheltenham, Glos.: Stanley Thornes, ISBN 978-0-85950-447-8 [edit] External links Look up succulent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. * SucculentCity.org * Drought Smart Plants * Cacti & Succulent Picture Gallery * Cactus and Succulent Field Number Database * Definition of a Succulent * Cactus and Succulent website with plenty of information Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Succulent_plant&oldid=533158 692" Categories: * Plant morphology * Succulent plants Hidden categories: * Articles needing additional references from January 2013 * All articles needing additional references * Articles lacking in-text citations from September 2012 * All articles lacking in-text citations Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * íêµì´ * Hrvatski * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * Basa Jawa * ÒазаÒÑа * LatvieÅ¡u * Lietuvių * Magyar * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Polski * Português * RomânÄ * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * SlovenÄina * Suomi * Svenska * à°¤à±à°²à±à°à± * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 15 January 2013 at 05:33. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki The Desert The desert is very dry and often hot. Annual rainfall averages less than 10 inches per year, and that rain often comes all at the same time. The rest of the year is very dry. There is a lot of direct sunlight shining on the plants. The soil is often sandy or rocky and unable to hold much water. Winds are often strong, and dry out plants. Plants are exposed to extreme temperatures and drought conditions. Plants must cope with extensive water loss. Desert Plant Adaptations * Some plants, called succulents, store water in their stems or leaves; * Some plants have no leaves or small seasonal leaves that only grow after it rains. The lack of leaves helps reduce water loss during photosynthesis. Leafless plants conduct photosynthesis in their green stems. * Long root systems spread out wide or go deep into the ground to absorb water; * Some plants have a short life cycle, germinating in response to rain, growing, flowering, and dying within one year. These plants can evade drought. * Leaves with hair help shade the plant, reducing water loss. Other plants have leaves that turn throughout the day to expose a minimum surface area to the heat. * Spines to discourage animals from eating plants for water; * Waxy coating on stems and leaves help reduce water loss. * Flowers that open at night lure pollinators who are more likely to be active during the cooler night. * Slower growing requires less energy. The plants don't have to make as much food and therefore do not lose as much water. Cactus with Spines Cactus with Hair Cactus with Waxy Leaves This cactus displays several desert adaptations: it has spines rather than leaves and it stores water in its stem. 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The first steps have already been taken and significant progress has been made e.g. in UK, where we have recently founded the... leer más 11 year old boy organizes his first Academy on Sardinia Mié, 2012-08-01 10:46 Giovanni will establish Plant-for-the-Planet in Italy and starts with his own Plant-for-the-Planet Academy in Sassari. As he did not find any local sponsor who could support the Academy, he installed a stand at a festival in the city of Sassari and could collect 300 euros. leer más más noticias Subscribe to Bank account data Account holder Plant-for-the-Planet Foundation Account number 200 000 Bank code number 700 20 500 Bank institution Sozialbank Bank branch office Munich IBAN DE13 7002 0500 0000 200 000 BIC / SWIFT BFSWDE33MUE Contact For suggestions, questions or comments please use our contact form. Or use the following contact options: * Phone: +49 (0) 8808 9345 * Fax: +49 (0) 8808 9346 * Email: info@plant-for-the-planet.org * Huella * Renuncia * Política de Privacidad * Prensa * Contacto * Login * Facebook * Twitter * Google+ * Flickr * Youtube * RSS * E-Mail [site-title.gif] * Home + News Archive * Learn More + Why plants are important + Why plants need our help + You can make a difference * About Plant Conservation Day + Partners * Celebration Stories * Resources for Organizers + For kids and families + For gardeners + Plant conservation tour + Conservation plant sale + Check out these books + Celebration resources Association of Zoological Horticulture Botanic Gardens Conservation International Plant Conservation Day > Learn More > Why plants need our help Why plants need our help bulldozer The world's plant species are facing unprecedented threats to their continued survival, despite the fact that their loss will have significant negative impacts on the humans and wildlife that depend upon them and the ecosystems services they provide. cactus Unfortunately, we know very little about what we are losing or how quickly we are losing it: there are nearly 250,000 angiosperm species currently known, and upwards of 350,000 species predicted (1). The world's plants are greatly underrepresented on the IUCN RedList when compared to other groups (2), but studies indicate that as many as 47% of the world's angiosperm species are now threatened with extinction (3). bg entrance Efforts to halt the loss of plant diversity are ongoing around the world (through local efforts and global efforts that collectively contribute to the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation), but this work receives disproportionately less support and funding that equivalent work on animal species [e.g. over half of the listed species in the U.S. are plants, but these species receive only 5% of funding spent on endangered species (4)]. CITATIONS: 1. VAMOSI, J. C., AND J. R. U. WILSON. 2008. Nonrandom extinction leads to elevated loss of angiosperm evolutionary history. Ecology Letters 11: 1047-1053. 2. BRUMMITT, N., S. P. BACHMAN, AND J. MOAT. 2008. Applications of the IUCN Red List: towards a global barometer for plant diversity. Endang Species Res 6: 127-135. 3. PITMAN, N. C. A., AND P. M. JORGENSEN. 2002. Estimating the Size of the World's Threatened Flora. Science 298: 989. 4. KENNEDY, K. L. 2008. The Center for Plant Conservation: Twenty Years of Recovering America's Vanishing Flora, Saving Biological Diversity, 47-58. Contact BGCI - Contact AZH - Translate this page - Legal notices - Accessibility Montana State University in Bozeman Directories A-Z Index Search MSU_____ Search Montana State University Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology PSPP Home * Dept Information * Faculty & Staff + Faculty + Professional and Classified Staff + Contact Information * Undergraduate Program + Crop Science + Plant Biology + Environmental Horticulture Science + Landscape Design + General Biotechnology + Plant Systems + Sustainable Crop Production + Environmental Horticulture Minor * Graduate Program * General Student Info * Facilities * Producers and Farmers * More Information * Bozeman Community * College of Agriculture Dept of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology P.O. Box 173150 Bozeman, MT 59717-3150 Tel: (406) 994-5171 Fax: (406) 994-7600 Location: Plant BioScience Building Dept Head: Dr. John Sherwood CURRENT COURSE FOCUS CURRENT NEWSLETTER CURRENT RESEARCH vimeo wheat video Department of Plant Sciences & Plant Pathology homepage The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology is part of the College of Agriculture at Montana State University in Bozeman. An exciting feature of this department is the diversity of programs in Plant Biology, Crop Science, Plant Pathology, Horticulture, Mycology, Plant Genetics and Entomology. The department offers BS, MS, and Ph.D. degree programs with a current enrollment of 100 undergraduate and 20 graduate students. The department has state-of-the-art laboratory and plant-growth facilities. Student and faculty researchers have access to seven research centers distributed across the state of Montana. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology offers class work for the undergraduate student in either Plant Science or Environmental Horticulture. Plant Science students can select degree options in Crop Science, Plant Biology or Plant Biotechnology. Environmental Horticulture students can select from options in Environmental Horticultural Science or Landscape Design. Graduate students can choose advanced work for a Master of Science degree in either Plant Sciences or Plant Pathology, or a Doctor of Philosophy degree in Plant Sciences with options in either Plant Pathology or Plant Genetics. The department participates in the inter-departmental Entomology Program, offering a Master of Science in Entomology and undergraduate Minor (for more information regarding entomology programs, contact Linda McDonald). An entering graduate student is expected to have a solid background in the basic sciences and a background equivalent to that provided by the undergraduate curriculum at Montana State University-Bozeman in the corresponding area of study. The Department of Plant Sciences and Plant Pathology at Montana State University-Bozeman offers unique research strengths for graduate students, including 1) the biology, genetics and biochemistry of diseases of small grains, fungal products and the biological control of weeds and pathogens; 2) plant breeding and genetics emphasizing both traditional and molecular approaches; and 3) plant molecular biology and molecular genetics. (c) Montana State University Accessibility Accessibility Admissions Administration Contact List Jobs Legal & Trademarks Privacy Policy Site Index Français Français English English Print this page Save the date Add to your favorites Share Join the group to expand your network ! * News * Keydates * Links * Contacts * Disclaimer * Downloads * Home / Welcome Message * Co-organisers * Committees + Local Organising Committee + Technical Committee * Programme (Sept. 5-6) + Monday, September 5 + Tuesday, September 6 * Speakers guidelines * Technical Visits (Sept. 7) * Congress Dinner * Practical Information * Registration & Accommodation + Registration procedure + Accommodation * Sponsors * Attending companies * Media relations * Post congress page If you wish to be informed on updates about the conference, please submit your email address here: ____________________ Validate INVITATION TO JOIN! Welcome on our website ! Plant-based Chemistry Plant-based Chemistry constitutes a major avenue of progress for the sustainable development of chemistry in Europe. Plant-based chemistry enables us and proves that an alternative really does exist with European rural resources. On the occasion of the International Year of Chemistry, and continuing the event in February 2010 at Brussels (Lighthouses of Sustainability European Concepts for Competitive Bio-Based Chemicals) the main plant-based chemistry players in Europe are organizing an international «Plant-based Chemistry congress” with the focus on the achievements, challenges and opportunities. The meeting will be held in Paris at the Maison de la Chimie from Monday, September 5 to Wednesday, September 7, 2011 and forecasts to welcome 400 participants including academic researchers, industry representatives, policymakers and venture capital providers. The meeting will foster debate and discussions on challenges emerging from the new developments in this field. The first two days of the congress will feature plenary lectures and oral presentations while the third day will consist in technical visits of major French industrial sites such as Roquette and the Lestrem site, ARD and the Pomacle site, Sofiprotéol-Novance in Compiègne, Arkema and Le Cerdato in Serquigny. We look forward to welcoming you to Paris! Co-organisers Supported by Sponsored by Endorsed by * Home / Welcome Message * Contacts MCI FRANCE Aqualuna [allgrain.GIF] [all-in-poll.GIF] [allwind-poll.GIF] What is a Plant? Plants are essential for any ecosystem. They provide all the energy for the ecosystem, because they can get energy directly from sunlight. They use a process called photosynthesis to use energy from the sun to grow and reproduce. They also must get nutrients from the soil. Those nutrients get into the soil when decomposers break down waste and dead materials. Plants require space to grow and reproduce. The size of your ecodome will influence how much space your plants have. All other organisms in the food chain get energy from plants, either by directly eating them as herbivores do, or by eating plant eaters, like carnivores do. Omnivores can get energy either by eating plants directly or by eating herbivores. Likewise, decomposers get energy either from plants or from the animals that eat them. Since all the energy in your ecosystem comes from plants, you'd better have a lot of them. There are several different kinds of plants, and not all animals can eat all kinds of plants. [wind-poll.GIF] Grasses are only edible to herbivores. That is because the plants contain kinds of fiber that many omnivores cannot digest efficiently. Many herbivores have specially adapted stomachs that allow them to digest these plants. [dandelion3.jpg] [redclover.jpg] [grass3.jpg] [Bogmoss.gif] [in-poll.GIF] Fruit-Bearing Plants make fruit. Herbivores and omnivores can both eat fruit or vegetables from plants, however. Fruit and seeds and sometimes vegetables are part of the plant's reproduction, and generally the presence of pollinators will help these fruit-bearing plants survive better and make more fruit. [beans.gif] [potato.jpg] [corn2.jpg] [raspberry.jpg] [grapes.gif] [soybean.jpg] [strawberry.GIF] [grain.GIF] Finally, there are a kind of plants called grains which make seeds that can be eaten by certain kinds of omnivores but not all. Humans and chickens can eat grain seeds. Herbivores can eat the whole plant. [tallgrass.gif] __________________________________________________________________ GO TO: [largeherb.GIF] Herbivores [wind-poll.GIF] Plants [medomni.GIF] Omnivores [bigcarn.GIF] Carnivores [fungus.GIF] Decomposers [pollinator.GIF] Pollinators [dome.gif] Ecodome | skip navigation | | Home | About us | Aims | Contact us | News | Eden Project | New * Events * Feature articles * Plant People * News archive Getting around * Contributors * Stories * Past issues * Facts * Advertising * Join us Additional * Book reviews * Global plant conservation Colombia: From white to green 04.05.10 Plant Talk introduced the Colombian cocaine issue a few weeks ago. Today Colombian's Oscar Cuervo and Nelson Reyes describe how the cocaine industry is ravaging the environment and people in their beloved home country. The Colombian government has launched a campaign to raise awareness among cocaine consumers of the effects that coca crops have on the environment and people. The campaign Shared Responsibility aims to inform people and potential users of the dangers the drugs pose for human health and biodiversity. Colombia is a large country of almost 445,000 square miles and 45 million people. But it's the hugely diverse landscapes and wildlife that makes it so special. The country contains more than 35,000 plant species, an estimated 19% of the world’s bird biodiversity, 10% of fish and 6% of reptiles. Interestingly, Colombia has the second highest magnolia diversity, after China, and the Antioquia region alone contains 16 species (of which two have only recently been described). Because of this diversity and rarity, magnolias were selected as one of the pilot groups for implementation of the Colombian National Strategy for Plant Conservation. Disturbing digital art image of hummingbird taking cocaine. The Gorgeted Puffleg is an endangered hummingbird native to a small region in western Colombia and has become a figurehead of the Shared Responsibility campaign. With ecosystems ranging from the Amazon jungle to the snow peaks, coasts on both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and a privileged position between North and South America. Colombia is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world and the sixth largest producer of freshwater. The famous Harvard biologist Edward O. Wilson once noted that Biodiversity is to Colombia, what Oil is to Saudi Arabia. This rich natural history includes a vast number of endemic species, many of which are directly threatened by cultivation of coca. New species are constantly being discovered: but some may become extinct before they have even been discovered. It’s well known Colombia is the world's largest cultivator of the coca plant. Less well known is the massive scale of this cultivation. Currently there are 81,000 hectares under production, but in recent years cocaine production in Colombia has dropped by 28%, which may be due to the increased yields of new coca varieties. Unfortunately these illicit crops and the strategies to eradicate them have dramatic effects on the environment such as destruction of ecological niches, loss of unknown genetic potential, trashing of endemic vegetation, substantial increases in carbon dioxide emissions, changes in precipitation patterns and climate, among others. Big chunks of destroyed rainforest can be seen where cocaine is being grown The most obvious symptom of coca production is the very graphic destruction of the tropical rainforest by cutting and subsequent burning. However, there are more subtle impacts including the effect on sources and biodiversity. As a result, the environmental losses far exceed the actual areas of cultivation, and it is estimated that for every hectare of coca two to three hectares of forest have to be destroyed. Scientists estimate 2,100 hectares of forest are destroyed annually in Colombia in the production and eradication of illicit crops and according to estimates the cultivation, production and trafficking of coca in Colombia has caused the destruction of at least 2.4 million hectares of tropical forest over the past 20 years. This deforestation in turn drives soil erosion and a host of other environmental woes. pristine rainforest in Colombia damaged by cocaine production page 1 page 2 > Privacy policy | Cookies policy | Sitemap © the Eden Project, the Eden Project is owned by the Eden Trust registered charity no. 1093070 #zenhabits RSS Feed Finding Peace with Uncertainty How to Wait Less zenhabits : breathe A Guide to Eating a Plant-Based Diet Post written by Leo Babauta. If I could make a single dietary recommendation to people looking to get healthier, it would be to move to a plant-based diet. Eating plants has been the best change I’ve made in my diet — and I’ve made a bunch of them, from intermittent fasting to low-carb experiments to eating 6 meals a day to eating almost all protein to eliminating sugar (all at various times). Plants have made me slimmer, healthier, stronger, more energetic — and have increased my life expectancy (more on all this below). Of course, the diet is simple, but moving away from the Standard American Diet to a plant-based one isn’t always so simple for most people. Changing your diet can be difficult, but in this guide I’ll share a bit about how to change, talk a bit about why, and what you might eat. What’s a Plant-Based Diet? The simple answer, of course, is that you eat plants. You eliminate animals and (eventually) animal products like dairy and eggs. The less simple answer is there is an abundance of plant foods that most people never eat, and eating a plant-based diet means you might widen the variety of foods you eat. For example, some of my favorite foods include: tempeh, seitan, tofu, kale, broccoli, quinoa, ground flaxseeds, ground chia seeds, raw almonds and walnuts, raw almond butter, olive oil, all kinds of berries, figs, avocados, tomatoes, lentils, black beans, spirulina, hemp seeds, nutritional yeast, organic soymilk, sweet potatoes, squash, carrots, apples, peaches, mangoes, pineapple, garlic, red wine, green tea, brown rice, sprouted (flourless) bread, brown rice, steel-cut oats. A “plant-based diet” can be basically another way to say “vegan”, though many people do use the term to mean that you eat almost all plants with some animal products. In this post, I’ll be focusing on veganism, as I believe it’s the ultimate plant-based diet. Why Should I Change? There are a few important reasons to eat plants: 1. Health. The basis of this guide is health, and many people switch to eating plants because they want to lose weight, improve their heart health, stay healthy as they age, improve blood pressure or deal with diabetes. A plant-based diet has been shown to help with all of these things — if you also stay away from the processed foods. A diet of processed flour and sugar and fried foods isn’t healthy even if it’s all plants (more on this below). The healthiest populations in the world are plant based: the Okinawans (traditionally at almost all plants such as sweet potatoes, soybeans, lots of veggies, with a little fish and occasional pork), the Sardinians (beans & veggies, red wine, some cheese, meat only once a week), and the vegan Seventh-Day Adventists in Loma Linda, California who are the longest-living Americans. Eating plants is the best thing you can do to reduce your risk of the leading causes of death. 2. Environment. Honestly, while this is very important to me, it’s probably the least important of the three reasons on this list (for me personally, that is). But it’s huge: the biggest way to reduce your carbon footprint is to stop eating animal products — better than giving up a car (next best) or using less energy in your home or traveling by plane less or recycling or using solar energy or driving an electric car or buying fewer things. The animals we raise for food production use a ton of resources, eat way more plants than we do (which in turn also require resources to be grown), give off huge amounts of planet-warming methane, breathe out a lot of carbon dioxide, and create a lot of pollution. This 2006 United Nations report concludes that “Livestock have a substantial impact on the world’s water, land and biodiversity resources and contribute significantly to climate change. Animal agriculture produces 18 percent of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions (CO2 equivalents), compared with 13.5 percent from all forms of transportation combined.” And it takes 4,000 to 18,000 gallons of water to make the beef for one hamburger, according to a recent report from the U.S. geological survey. 3. Compassion. For me, this is the most important reason to move away from eating animals. I’ve talked a lot about compassion on this site, but by far the most cruel thing any of us does each day is consume animals (and their products). The cruelty that is perpetuated on these living, feeling, suffering beings on our behalf is enormous and undeniable. If you don’t believe me, watch this video with Sir Paul McCartney or this video about pigs. While I became vegan for health reasons, I stick with it for reasons of compassion — wanting to reduce the suffering of other sentient beings. But … if you don’t do it to avoid pollution, heart disease, cancer, diabetes, stroke, increased death rates, animal cruelty, global warming, deforestation, and higher costs … maybe weight loss would do it. Vegetarians and vegans weigh less on average than meat eaters. That’s even after adjusting for things like fibre, alcohol, smoking … and calorie intake! Half of Americans are obese, but vegans tend to be much less obese (with exceptions of course). That said, just going vegan will not necessarily cause you to lose weight. You could easily eat a lot of sugar, white flour, fake meats and fried foods and gain weight. If you eat whole plant foods, you’re likely to lose weight. Plant foods, for starters, have pretty much no saturated fat, low calories and tons of fiber, while animal foods all have saturated fat, lots of calories and zero fiber. Beating Death: I highly recommend watching this video on uprooting the causes of death using a plant-based diet. It’s a bit long, but well worth the time. How to Change It will be no surprise that I recommend people start small and change slowly. A good plan is to make the change in stages: 1. Slowly cut out meat. This stage is actually several smaller stages. You might try starting with Meatless Mondays and then, over time, expanding to other days of the week. Another common idea is to start by cutting out red meat, and then poultry, then seafood, in gradual stages of a month or even six months. There is no rush — do it at the pace that feels good to you. Another important point is that, as you eliminate meat, don’t just fill it with starches (which don’t have that much nutrition). Try new foods, experiment with ethic recipes, and explore different nutrients as you make these changes. 2. Eliminate eggs. After you cut out red meat and poultry, you’ll be pescatarian (seafood). When you eliminate seafood, you’re vegetarian! If you’re eating eggs and dairy, that’s called a “lacto-ovo” vegetarian. You can then eliminate eggs — and no, they’re not cruelty-free. This is one of the easier stages, in my experience. 3. Cut out dairy. This tends to be harder for most people. Not because of milk (soymilk and almond milk are good alternatives that just take a few days to adjust to) … but because of cheese. I hear a lot of people say, “I can’t give up my cheese!” — and I empathize, as this was a sticking point for me too. It helps that there are better and better cheese alternatives these days (Daiya being a favorite of many). But for me, what made all the difference is not focusing on what I was giving up, but on the good things I could eat! 4. Eat whole, unprocessed foods. This is the phase that I’m in, and I wholly recommend it. You can go straight here if you have no problems changing your diet, but people eating the Standard American Diet will find it difficult, because the foods are very different than what most people eat. For example, most people in the U.S. don’t eat many vegetables, and find them distasteful, especially dark green leafy veggies, which are the best. I now love vegetables, and kale is my best friend. Most people dislike protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, and beans. Most people don’t eat raw nuts — they eat roasted and salted nuts. However, all of this can change over time, which is why I recommend that you move into this slowly. What exactly is this phase? See the next section for details. What to Eat So what do you eat when you’re on a plant-based diet that focuses on whole foods? Lots! A few categories of foods to include regularly: 1. Beans and other protein. This means the regular kinds of beans, like lentils, black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans, garbanzo beans, etc. But it can also mean soybeans (edamame), tofu, tempeh, and seitan (protein from wheat, not good for gluten-intolerant people). It can also mean soymilk, soy yogurt, and the like, which are often fortified. Get organic, non-GMO soy. 2. Nuts and seeds. My favorites include raw almonds and walnuts, along with ground flaxseeds and chia seeds, and hemp seed protein powder. Almond milk is also good. And quinoa — it’s like a grain, but really a seed, and full of nutrition. 3. Good fats. Fats aren’t bad for you — you should just look to avoid saturated fats. Luckily, not many plant foods have saturated fats. Plants with good fats include avocados, nuts and seeds mentioned above, olive oil and canola oil. 4. Greens. This is one of the most important and nutritious group of all. Dark, leafy green veggies are awesome, and full of calcium, iron and a ton of vitamins. My favorites: kale, spinach, broccoli, collards. Eat lots of them daily! They also have very few calories, meaning they pack a ton of nutrition in a small caloric package. 5. Other fruits and veggies. Get a variety — I love berries of all kinds, figs, apples, citrus fruits, peaches, mangoes, bananas, pears, bell peppers, garlic, beets, celery, cauliflower … I could go on all day! Get lots of different colors. 6. Good starches. Starches are not bad for you — but ones that have little calories aren’t great. So find starches that give you lots of nutrition. Sweet potatoes, red potatoes, squash, brown rice, sprouted whole wheat, steel-cut oats, among others. 7. Some other healthy stuff. I love red wine, green tea, cinnamon, turmeric, spirulina and nutritional yeast. OK, by now you might be overwhelmed by all of this. How do you put it together? It’s not that hard once you get used to it. Start learning some recipes that combine some of these foods into meals, and over time, you’ll have a few go-to meals that you love that are full of nutrition. Some examples that I like (but don’t limit yourself to these!): * Tofu scramble w/ veggies: some organic high-protein tofu crumbled and stir-fried with olive oil, garlic, diced carrots and tomatoes, spinach and mushrooms, and spiced with tamari, turmeric, sea salt and coarse black pepper. * Steel-cut oats: cook some steel-cut oats, then add ground flaxseeds, raw nuts, berries, cinnamon. * Stir-fry: Here’s my secret … you can make an endless combo of meals by cooking some garlic in olive oil, then cooking some veggies (carrots, bell peppers, mushrooms, etc.) and some protein (tofu, tempeh, seitan, etc.) and some greens (kale, broccoli, spinach, etc.) and some spices (turmeric or coconut milk or tamari & sesame oil, black pepper, salt). * Veggie chili over quinoa: Black beans, kidney beans, pinto beans with olive oil, garlic, onions, tomatoes, bell pepper, diced kale, diced carrots, tomato sauce, chili powder, salt, pepper. Maybe some beer for flavor. Serve over quinoa or brown rice. * One-pot meal: Quinoa, lentils, greens, olive oil, tempeh (or a bunch of other variations). Read Tynan’s post on cooking this all in one pot. * Whole-wheat pasta: Serve with a sauce — some tomato sauce with olive oil, garlic, onions, bell peppers, diced kale and carrots, diced tomatoes, fresh basil, oregano. * Big-ass Salad: Start with a bed of kale & spinach, throw on other veggies such as carrots, mushrooms, cauliflower, snow peas, green beans, tomatoes … then some beans, nuts and/or seeds … top with avocado. Mix balsamic vinegar and olive oil, or red wine vinegar and olive oil, sprinkle on the salad. Yum. * Smoothies: Blend some almond or soy milk with frozen berries, greens, ground chia or flaxseeds, hemp or spirulina protein powder. Lots of nutrition in one drink! * Snacks: I often snack on fruits and berries, raw almonds or walnuts, carrots with hummus. * Drinks: I tend to drink water all day, some coffee (without sugar) in the morning, tea in the afternoon, and red wine in the evening. My Food Journal: If you’d like to see my food journal (admittedly not always perfectly healthy), I’ve started one that you can see here. Frequently Asked Questions I’ll add to this section as questions come in, though obviously I can’t answer everything. Q: Isn’t it hard to get protein on a vegan diet? A: Not really, as long as you eat a variety of whole foods, and not a bunch of processed flours and sugars (the white kind that has little nutrition). There is protein in vegetables and grains, and even more in beans, nuts and seeds. I often eat protein-rich plant foods like tempeh, tofu, seitan, edamame, black beans, lentils, quinoa, soymilk, and raw nuts. Read more here. Q: What about calcium or iron or B12? A: Again, it’s not difficult at all. I’ve calculated the iron and calcium in my diet at various times, and as long as I’m mostly eating whole foods, it’s really easy. Nuts and green veggies are your best friends, but there’s also calcium-fortified soymilk and tofu and the like. Eat some kale, quinoa, raw nuts, various seeds, broccoli, tofu or tempeh … it’s not difficult. Vitamin B12 is a bit more difficult to get from regular plants, as the main source of B12 is usually animal products — including eggs and dairy. But actually, vegans have figured this out, and now if you drink fortified soymilk or almond milk, or use nutritional yeast or a few other good sources like that, you will have no worries. More reading on iron, calcium and B12 for vegans. Q: Isn’t soy bad for you? A: No. That’s a myth. I would stick to organic, non-GMO soy, but actually soy is a very healthy source of protein and other nutrients, and has been eaten by very healthy people for thousands of years. More info here. Q: I follow the Paleo diet and believe this is how humans are meant to eat. A: Well, if you’re eating unprocessed foods and have cut out white flours and sugars and deep-fried foods, you’re probably healthier than the average American. I admire the Paleo crowd that focuses on whole foods and that eats lots of veggies and nuts and seeds, but when it’s just an excuse to eat lots of meat, it’s not as healthy. It’s also not true that hunter-gatherer societies ate mostly meat — the crowd that believes this has made a flawed review of contemporary hunter-gatherers. Most traditional societies eat, and have pretty much always eaten, mostly plants, including lots of starches — respected anthropologists such as Nathanial Dominy, PhD, from Dartmouth College say that the idea of hunter-gatherers eating mostly meat is a myth. Also read this. I’d also warn against low-carb, high-protein diets over the long run — in the short term, you’ll see weight loss, but in the long run they’ve been shown to increase cardiovascular disease (from June 21, 2012 issue of British Medical Journal). Q: It sounds difficult and complicated. A: Actually it’s very simple — you just learn to eat a variety of plants. It does mean learning some new meals, but instead of seeing that as a hardship, think of it as something fun to learn. If you slowly change your eating patterns, it’s not hard at all. Be flexible and don’t be too strict — you’ll find that it’s much easier if you allow yourself an occasional meal with animal products, especially in the first 6-12 months. Q: What about fake meats and cheeses? A: There’s nothing wrong with giving them a try now and then when you’re having a craving for something, but in all honesty you don’t need them. They’re more expensive and less healthy. Basically, they’re convenience foods. Q: What if I’m allergic to soy or gluten or nuts? A: It’s still possible to get all the nutrition you need from a plant-based diets without a specific kind of food (like gluten or soy), from what I understand. More here. Q: It sounds expensive. A: Actually it can be a lot less expensive, if you stay away from the vegan convenience foods (which are fine on occasion). Meat is more expensive than beans or tofu, for example. While fresh, organic veggies can cost a bit, you should get these in your diet even if you eat meat — and in the long run, you’ll save much more on medical bills. Q: There’s no way I’ll give up (eggs, cheese, ice cream, etc.)! A: Well, you don’t have to. If you want to eat mostly plants but also eggs and cheese, that’s much better than eating meat. But there are cheese substitutes you can try, and vegan ice cream, and in the long run, you might find that giving these things up isn’t as difficult as you think. Q: What about eating out at restaurants or social gatherings? A: I’d recommend you take it slowly at first, and eat mostly plants at home, and be more liberal when you eat out, for a little while. You don’t want to make this too difficult on yourself. But actually, once you learn some simple strategies, it’s not that hard to find vegan food in restaurants — some are easier than others, and sites like Happy Cow make it easy to find veg-friendly restaurants in your area. As for eating at friends’ and families’ houses, I’ve learned to offer to bring one or two vegan dishes, and it’s not usually a problem. Q: What if my family and friends don’t support this change? A: It’s best if you don’t start preaching — people don’t like it. This article might seem like a violation of that, but actually I rarely push veganism on this site, and when I do it’s only as a way to show others a healthy and compassionate alternative. Remember that those around you probably don’t know much about veganism, and are likely to react defensively. Take the opportunity, when they bring up the topic, to share what you’re learning, and the concerns you yourself had when you first learned about it. Show them some great vegan food. Share this guide with them. And always be patient. More answers here: Vegan Outreach Q&A, Vegan Nutrition FAQ, Vegan Society FAQ. 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Login Search______________ [blankSearchbtn.png] frontiers Logo IN Plant Nutrition * Info * Home * About * Editorial Board * Archive * Research Topics * View Some Authors * Review Guidelines * Subscribe to Alerts * Search * ____________________ [BUTTON Input] (not implemented)_____ Article Type [All______________________] Publication Date From________________ To__________________ [BUTTON Input] (not implemented)_____ Go Author Info Why Submit? Fees Article Types Author Guidelines Submission Checklist Contact Editorial Office Submit Manuscript Start date should be earlier than end date. OK Please enter valid date format. RECENT ARTICLES The Effects of Inorganic Nitrogen form and CO2 Concentration on Wheat Yield and Nutrient Accumulation and Distribution Eli Carlisle, Samuel Myers, Victor Raboy and Arnold Bloom Novel Insights into Regulation of Asparagine Synthetase in Conifers Javier Canales, Marina Rueda-López, Blanca Craven-Bartle, Concepción Avila and Francisco M. 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All Rights Reserved [spacer.gif] * About AARS * Press Room * Contact * Search Rose.org_____ go * Home * AARS Winners * Region's Choice * Buying Roses * Growing Roses * Enjoying Roses Home > Growing Roses > Planting Roses * Rose Gardening Regional Growing Guide * Types of Roses * Planting Roses + Selecting a Planting Site + Bare Root Roses + Planting a Container Rose * Caring for Roses * Pruning Roses * Designing with Roses * FAQ * Zone Map * Books * Fragrant Roses Planting Roses Growing beautiful roses begins with proper rose planting techniques and requires neither great rose gardening skills nor experience. The following information describes how to get your new rose plant off to a great start. Simply use a little common sense in your choice of location, follow the steps outlined here and voila - your roses are off to a healthy start. Selecting a Site to Plant your Roses First, choose a sunny area of the garden that gets at least 4 to 5 hours of sun. Do not crowd your rose with other trees and plants. Some roses, such as climbers and shrubs, don't mind company, but most like to mix with other roses or other non-invasive plants. If you're replacing an older rose bush, it is important to remove an 18 cubic inch area of soil and replace it with fresh soil. A newly planted rose doesn't like to grow in the same soil that an older rose bush has been in. Learn more about Selecting a Site When to Plant * Bare Root Roses -An easy and inexpensive option for early season planting. Late winter is the best time plant bare-root roses. Learn more about Bare Root Roses * Container Roses - A container rose already has plenty of leaves and maybe some blooms. Early spring is the best time to set out plants grown in nursery containers (vs. bare-root, packaged plants). Learn more about Container Roses Step-by-Step instructions for Planting Roses 1. If you have a bare root plant, soak it in a bucket of water before planting. For roses that are potted, you can water the pot thoroughly and let it sit until ready to plant. 2. Dig a hole approximately 15 inches deep and 18 inches wide. If planting bare root roses, form a small mound of soil in the center of the planting hole. If you live in a colder area, plant a bit deeper and consult with your local garden center. 3. Add a small handful of bonemeal to the planting hole. Spade in some compost or peatmoss to loosen the soil. Mix the soil you took out of the hole with more compost or peat moss. 4. Remove the rose from the pot. Carefully place in the hole and shovel the extra soil around the new plant. Plant the rose with the crown slightly deeper than the original soil. The crown or bud union should be about 1 inch under the soil 5. Gently firm the rose into its new home and water well. Stand back and watch it grow! 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Click here [box_topleft.gif] [box_topright.gif] EPPO is an intergovernmental organization responsible for European cooperation in plant health. Founded in 1951 by 15 European countries, EPPO now has 50 members, covering almost all countries of the European and Mediterranean region. Its objectives are to protect plants, to develop international strategies against the introduction and spread of dangerous pests and to promote safe and effective control methods. As a Regional Plant Protection Organization, EPPO also participates in global discussions on plant health organized by FAO and the IPPC Secretariat. Finally, EPPO has produced a large number of standards and publications on plant pests, phytosanitary regulations, and plant protection products. more information >> [box_botleft.gif] [box_botright.gif] [box_topleft_c.gif] [box_topright_c.gif] Pour aider nos visiteurs francophones, plusieurs pages de ce site ont ete traduites en franc,ais (suivre les icones [Francesmall.gif] ). Mnogie stranicy nashego vebsajta byli perevedeny na russkij yazyk, chtoby oblegchit' rabotu s nim nashim russkoyazychnym posetitelyam (oboznacheny flazhkom [ru.gif] ) [box_botleft_c.gif] [box_botright_c.gif] Contact us | Links | EPPO Gallery | Follow us [facebook2.jpg] [twitter2.jpg] (c) 2013 EPPO - All Rights Reserved - EPPO Cloud [zendwww1] #prev next Skip Navigation Oxford Journals * Contact Us * My Basket * My Account Molecular Plant * About This Journal * Contact This Journal * Subscriptions * View Current Issue (Volume 6 Issue 1 January 2013) * Archive * Search * Oxford Journals * Life Sciences * Molecular Plant * Volume 5 Issue 6 * Pp. 1167-1169. IFRAME: /resource/htmlfiles/advert.html?p=Top&u=mplant.oxfordjournals.org/conte nt/5/6/1167.extract Nutrient Sensing in Plants 1. Xiaofeng Cui 1. Deputy Editor-in-Chief, Molecular Plant 1. xiaofeng{at}sippe.ac.cn * Accepted September 24, 2012. Higher plants require a number of essential nutrient elements for completing their life cycles. Mineral nutrients are mainly acquired by roots from the rhizosphere and are subsequently distributed to shoots. To cope with nutrient limitations, plants have evolved a set of elaborate responses consisting of sensing mechanisms and signaling processes to perceive and adapt to external nutrient availability. In 2010, Molecular Plant published a special issue focusing on nutrient sensing and signaling in plants (Volume 3, Number 2, 2010). This themed issue was organized by Dr Daniel Schachtman and has been freely accessible since March 2011. Notably, this special issue collected five review and ten research articles from leading scientists in the area of sensing and signaling mechanisms underlying responses to the status of phosphate, potassium, sulfate, and energy. PHOSPHATE Phosphorus (P) is a crucial structural element of many organic molecules such as nucleic acids, ATP, and phospholipids. Although P is abundant in the soil, plants can only absorb its inorganic forms such as phosphate (Pi), which has poor mobility. In Arabidopsis, the root tip is the major site in sensing Pi deficiency. Several Arabidopsis mutants, including pdr2, lpi, and lpr, have been isolated and shown to display altered root growth under Pi starvation. These phenotypic changes are linked to the complex crosstalks between Pi and phytohormone signaling pathways in response to gibberellins, ethylene, auxin, and cytokinins, as well as sugar (Rouached et al., 2010). Plants absorb Pi by Pi transporters (PHT) including Pi/H^+ symporters. Several genes encode Pi transporters required for Pi transport across plasma membrane (PM), and flux into and from chloroplast, mitochondria, and Golgi, respectively. The PHT1 family genes PHT1;1 and PHT1;4 are highly induced by Pi starvation and encode PM high-affinity … [Full Text of this Article] « Previous | Next Article » Table of Contents This Article 1. Mol. Plant (2012) 5 (6): 1167-1169. doi: 10.1093/mp/sss107 First published online: September 30, 2012 1. » Extract 2. Full Text (HTML) 3. Full Text (PDF) 4. All Versions of this Article: 1. sss107v1 2. sss107v2 3. 5/6/1167 most recent Classifications 1. + Editorial Services 1. Alert me when cited 2. Alert me if corrected 3. Find similar articles 4. Similar articles in Web of Science 5. Similar articles in PubMed 6. Add to my archive 7. Download citation 8. Request Permissions Citing Articles 1. Load citing article information 2. Citing articles via CrossRef 3. Citing articles via Scopus 4. Citing articles via Web of Science Google Scholar 1. Articles by Cui, X. PubMed 1. PubMed citation 2. Articles by Cui, X. Related Content 1. Load related web page information Share 1. 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Global Analysis of Direct Targets of Secondary Wall NAC Master Switches in Arabidopsis 2. Fluorescence Intensity Decay Shape Analysis Microscopy (FIDSAM) for Quantitative and Sensitive Live-Cell Imaging: A Novel Technique for Fluorescence Microscopy of Endogenously Expressed Fusion-Proteins 3. Identification of Quantitative Trait Loci Affecting Hemicellulose Characteristics Based on Cell Wall Composition in a Wild and Cultivated Rice Species 4. StructureFunction Relations of Strigolactone Analogues: Activity as Plant Hormones and Plant Interactions 5. Cellulose Synthases and Synthesis in Arabidopsis » View all Most Read articles * Most Cited 1. An Update on Abscisic Acid Signaling in Plants and More ... 2. Plant Cell Wall Matrix Polysaccharide Biosynthesis 3. Chloroplast Proteomics and the Compartmentation of Plastidial Isoprenoid Biosynthetic Pathways 4. Narrowing Down the Targets: Towards Successful Genetic Engineering of Drought-Tolerant Crops 5. 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See Resources Plant Biology Plant Biology The plant group at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory studies fundamental mechanisms in plant development and genetics that impact crop productivity, biodiversity and climate change. Their research uses Arabidopsis, maize and most recently tomato as model systems and expands upon the Nobel prize-winning work done here by Barbara McClintock in the 1940s and 50s. The transposable genetic elements, or "jumping genes," that she discovered are now understood to reprogram the epigenome and are being used at CSHL for functional genomics in Arabidopsis and maize. CSHL has taken part in numerous plant genome sequencing projects including Arabidopsis, rice, sorghum and maize, as well as epigenomic sequencing and profiling. We are part of the iPlant Cyberinfrastructure consortium and the Long Island Biofuels Alliance. The Laboratory owns 12 acres of farmland nearby called Uplands Farm. 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[CSHL_logo_footer.png] One Bungtown Road Cold Spring Harbor, NY 11724 516-367-8800 Contact | Site Map | Directions | Privacy Policy #Edit this page Wikipedia (en) copyright Wikipedia Atom feed Evergreen From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about plant types. For other uses, see Evergreen (disambiguation). A Silver Fir shoot showing three successive years of retained leaves. In botany, an evergreen plant is a plant that has leaves in all seasons. This contrasts with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many different kinds of evergreen plants, both trees and shrubs. Evergreens include: * most species of conifers (e.g., hemlock, blue spruce, red cedar, and white/scots/jack pine) * live oak, holly, and "ancient" gymnosperms such as cycads * most angiosperms from frost-free climates, such as eucalypts and rainforest trees The Latin binomial term sempervirens (literally, "always green") refers to the evergreen nature of the plant, for instance:- Acer sempervirens (a maple) Cupressus sempervirens (a cypress) Lonicera sempervirens (a honeysuckle) Sequoia sempervirens (a sequoia) Ulmus parvifolia 'Sempervirens' (an elm) An additional special case exists in Welwitschia, an African gymnosperm plant that produces only two leaves which grow continuously throughout the plant's life but gradually wear away at the apex. Welwitschia can live for over 1000 years. Leaf persistence in evergreen plants varies from a few months (with new leaves constantly being grown as old ones are shed) to several decades (over thirty years in the Great Basin Bristlecone Pine^[1]). Contents * 1 Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous * 2 Metaphorical use * 3 See also * 4 References [edit] Reasons for being evergreen or deciduous A Southern Live Oak in winter. Deciduous trees shed their leaves usually as an adaptation to a cold or dry season. Evergreen trees do lose leaves, but not all at the same time the way that deciduous trees do. Different trees shed their leaves at different times, so the forest as a whole looks green. Most tropical rainforest plants are considered to be evergreens, replacing their leaves gradually throughout the year as the leaves age and fall, whereas species growing in seasonally arid climates may be either evergreen or deciduous. Most warm temperate climate plants are also evergreen. In cool temperate climates, fewer plants are evergreen, with a predominance of conifers, as few evergreen broadleaf plants can tolerate severe cold below about -30 °C. In areas where there is a reason for being deciduous (e.g. a cold season or dry season), being evergreen is usually an adaptation to low nutrient levels. Deciduous trees lose nutrients whenever they lose their leaves. In warmer areas, species such as some pines and cypresses grow on poor soils and disturbed ground. In Rhododendron, a genus with many broadleaf evergreens, several species grow in mature forests but are usually found on highly acidic soil where the nutrients are less available to plants. In taiga or boreal forests, it is too cold for the organic matter in the soil to decay rapidly, so the nutrients in the soil are less easily available to plants, thus favouring evergreens. In temperate climates, evergreens can reinforce their own survival; evergreen leaf and needle litter has a higher carbon-nitrogen ratio than deciduous leaf litter, contributing to a higher soil acidity and lower soil nitrogen content. These conditions favour the growth of more evergreens and make it more difficult for deciduous plants to persist. In addition, the shelter provided by existing evergreen plants can make it easier for younger evergreen plants to survive cold and/or drought.^[2]^[3]^[4] Evergreen plants and deciduous plants have almost all the same diseases and pests, but long-term air pollution, ash and toxic substances in the air are more injurious for evergreen plants than deciduous plants (for example spruce Picea abies in European cities). [edit] Metaphorical use Owing to the botanical meaning, the term "evergreen" can refer metaphorically to something that is continuously renewed or is self-renewing. One example of metaphorical use of the expression is the term "Evergreen content" used to describe perennial articles or guides about topics that do not change frequently.^[5] [edit] See also * Conifer * Deciduous * Fir * Hemlock * Pine * Semi-deciduous * Spruce * Little Trees * Hemp [edit] References 1. ^ Ewers, F. W. & Schmid, R. (1981). Longevity of needle fascicles of Pinus longaeva (Bristlecone Pine) and other North American pines. Oecologia 51: 107â115 2. ^ Aerts, R. (1995). The advantages of being evergreen. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 10 (10): 402â407. 3. ^ Matyssek, R. (1986) Carbon, water and nitrogen relations in evergreen and deciduous conifers. Tree Physiology 2: 177â187. 4. ^ Sobrado, M. A. (1991) Cost-Benefit Relationships in Deciduous and Evergreen Leaves of Tropical Dry Forest Species. Functional Ecology 5 (5): 608â616. 5. ^ Gomes, Diego. (2011). [1] What is evergreen content Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evergreen&oldid=528770544" Categories: * Plants * Botany Navigation menu Personal tools * Create account * Log in Namespaces * Article * Talk Variants Views * Read * Edit * View history Actions Search ____________________ (Submit) Search Navigation * Main page * Contents * Featured content * Current events * Random article * Donate to Wikipedia Interaction * Help * About Wikipedia * Community portal * Recent changes * Contact Wikipedia Toolbox * What links here * Related changes * Upload file * Special pages * Permanent link * Page information * Cite this page Print/export * Create a book * Download as PDF * Printable version Languages * اÙعربÙØ© * ÐелаÑÑÑÐºÐ°Ñ * ÐÑлгаÑÑки * Bosanski * Català * Äesky * Dansk * Deutsch * Eesti * Español * Esperanto * Euskara * ÙØ§Ø±Ø³Û * Français * Galego * हिनà¥à¤¦à¥ * Bahasa Indonesia * Ãslenska * Italiano * ×¢×ר×ת * à²à²¨à³à²¨à²¡ * Magyar * ÐакедонÑки * Bahasa Melayu * Nederlands * æ¥æ¬èª * Norsk (bokmÃ¥l)â * Norsk (nynorsk)â * Polski * Português * Ð ÑÑÑкий * Simple English * Suomi * Svenska * à¹à¸à¸¢ * УкÑаÑнÑÑка * Vèneto * ä¸æ * This page was last modified on 19 December 2012 at 08:10. * Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. See Terms of Use for details. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. * Contact us * Privacy policy * About Wikipedia * Disclaimers * Mobile view * Wikimedia Foundation * Powered by MediaWiki Science Kids - Fun Science & Technology for Kids! Science for Kids Math for Kids English for Kids _______________________________________________________ Search Science kids home Fun science experiments Cool science games & activities Amazing science facts Science quizzes Science fair projects Science lesson plans and class ideas Science images, photos & pictures Science videos Science topics Free Science Games & Activities for Kids Plant & Animal Differences Game Plant & Animal Differences Learn about the differences between animals & plants by sorting them into different categories. Discover more about mammals, birds, insects & plants with this fun activity for kids. Find out which category living things such as bees, penguins, horses, butterflies, humans, trees and flowers fit into. Work fast as the conveyor belt moves across the screen, quickly put the different plants and animals into the correct boxes. Take up the challenge and enjoy this cool, educational game. [EMBED] Science Kids (c) | Home | About | Topics | Experiments | Games | Facts | Quizzes | Projects | Lessons | Images | Videos | Privacy | Sitemap | Updated: Jan 9, 2013 Wayne's Word Index Noteworthy Plants Trivia Lemnaceae Biology 101 Botany Search Economically Important Plant Families Numbered Plant Familes Are Used On Botany 115 Exam #4 Submission Form See A Numerical List Of All Plant Families Used On This Version Of Exam #4 [pdficon.gif] Click PDF Icon To Read Page In Acrobat Reader. See Text In Arial Font Like In A Book. View Exam Off-Line: Right Click On PDF Icon To Save Target File To Your Computer. Click Here To Download Latest Acrobat Reader. Follow The Instructions For Your Computer. _______________ Find On This Page: Type Word Inside Box; Find Again: Scroll Up, Click In Box & Enter [Try Control-F or EDIT + FIND at top of page] **Note: This Search Box May Not Work With All Web Browsers** CAPTION: Look Up Plant Family Alphabetically A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z 1. Aceraceae: Maple Family Back To Alphabet Table Acer spp. Maple [Beautiful hardwoods, lumber and shade trees.] A. saccharum Sugar Maple [From sapwood during early spring; many commercial syrups contain artificial ingredients such as colorings, flavorings and preservatives.] Maple Syrup From The Sugar Maple Tree 2. Actinidiaceae: Actinidia Family Back To Alphabet Table Actinidia chinensis Kiwi or Chinese Gooseberry [Fuzzy green fruit with translucent pale green flesh surrounding narrow ring of tiny black seeds; the flavor suggests a blend of melon, strawberry and banana.] See Delicious, Fresh Kiwi Fruits 3. Agaricaceae and Boletaceae: Mushroom Families Back To Alphabet Table [Also Including The Cantharellaceae, Morchellaceae & Tricholomataceae] Agaricus campestris Field Mushroom (Agaricaceae) A. bisporus Button Mushroom [Common mushroom sold in supermarkets; the portobello mushroom is a variety of this species.] Boletus edulis King Bolete (Boletaceae) Cantharellus cibarius Chanterelle (Cantharellaceae) Morchella esculenta Morel (Morchellaceae) M. elata Black Morel (Morchellaceae) Lentinus edodes Shi-Take Mushroom (Tricholomataceae) Go To The Wayne's Word Fungus Article See A Cluster Of Delicious Fresh Morels See A Delicious King Bolete (Boletus edulis) Mr. Wolffia Overindulging On Boletus edulis See A Basket Of Delicious Fresh Chanterelles Some Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain More Mushrooms From Palomar Mountain 4. Agavaceae: Agave Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae Agave atrovirens Pulque Plant [Pulque is the fermented juice from the base of flower stalk; leaves of central cone are removed and the sap is allowed to collect in the cavity; mescal and tequila are distilled pulque; other species of Agave are also used for pulque.] A. sisalina Sisal [Strong fibers from leaves.] Phormium tenax New Zealand Flax [Strong leaf fibers 3 to 7 feet long.] Sansevieria metalaea and other spp. Bowstring Hemp [Strong fiber from leaves; sometimes placed in the Liliaceae.] Cordyline fruticosa Ti Plant [Many uses for fibrous leaves of this Polynesian plant.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers Read About Legendary Hawaiian Ti Plant Amaranthaceae: Amaranth Family Back To Alphabet Table Amaranthus caudatus Jataco or Achita [Edible leaves used as a potherb; nutritious seeds cooked and eaten like cereal grains.] Amaranthus retroflexus Pigweed [Edible leaves and seeds.] A. cruentus, A. powellii, A. hypochondriacus Amaranth [Edible seeds ground into flour; amaranth flour was important South American cereal during pre-Columbian times; grown by the Aztecs and southwest Indians for millennia, the small seeds are rich in lysine and the young leaves are high in calcium and iron.] Red Inflorescence & Seeds Of Amaranth Species 5. Amaryllidaceae: Amaryllis Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This Family Sometimes Lumped With The Liliaceae The following plants with edible bulbs are often placed in the lily family but are more correctly members of the Amaryllis Family--Amaryllidaceae: Allium cepa Onion and Shallot [Edible bulbs; including many different varieties.] A. ampeloprasum (A. porrum) Leek [Delicious edible bulb and leaves.] A. sativum Garlic [Edible bulb; valuable seasoning and medicinal herb.] A. schoenoprasum Chives [Leaves used for garnish and herb.] See Fresh Red, White & Yellow Onions Garlic: Seasoning & Medicinal Herb See Bulb And Leaves Of A Fresh Leek 6. Anacardiaceae: Cashew or Sumac Family Back To Alphabet Table Anacardium occidentale Cashew [The cashew "nut" is attached to a swollen, fleshy stalk (pedicel) called the cashew apple; the outer shell of the "nut" contains the allergen urushiol and can cause a dermatitis reaction similar to that of poison oak and poison ivy.] Spondias mombin Hog Plum S. purpurea Red Mombin Harpephyllum caffrum Kaffir Plum Pleiogynium solandri (P. timorense) Burdekin Plum Mangifera indica Mango Pistacia vera Pistachio Nut P. lentiscus Gum Mastic P. chinensis Chinese Pistache Pachycormus discolor Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see elephant trees (Bursera spp.) in Burseraceae.] Gluta renghas Rengas Tree [Tropical Malaysian tree with beautiful heartwood; dangerous to work because of urushiol in resin.] Melanorrhoea usitata Burmese Lacquer Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Semecarpus anacardium India Marking Nut Tree [Sap contains urushiol.] Metopium toxiferum and Comocladia dodonaea [Caribbean shrubs that contain urushiol.] Schinus molle Peruvian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] S. terebinthifolius Brazilian Pepper Tree [Female trees are the source of pink peppercorns.] Toxicodendron vernicifluum Lacquer Tree. [From milky sap which darkens upon oxidation; sap contains urushiol.] Note: Shellac is prepared from a resinous secretion on the twigs of several tree species by an insect, Tachardia lacca or Laccifer lacca. This insect is a member of the order Homoptera along with aphids, scale insects, mealy bugs, and cicadas. Confectioner's glaze (also known as pharmaceutical glaze) is an alcohol based solution of food grade shellac. It extends the shelf life of candies and tablets and protects them from moisture. It also masks the unpleasant odor and taste of certain medicinal tablets and aids in swallowing. Since the shellac coating is insoluble in stomach acids, it is used in time-released pills. T. diversilobum, T. radicans, and T. vernix Poison Oak, Poison Ivy, and Poison Sumac. All are painful experiences to hypersensitive people. Dermatitis reactions can also occur from handling the shells of cashew nuts and from eating mangoes. See Photo Of A Delicious Fresh Mango See Photograph Of Delicious Hog Plums See Photograph Of Colorful Kaffir Plums See Photograph Of Unusual Burdekin Plums See Pistachio Nut--Technically A Drupe See Leaf & Drupes Of Chinese Pistache See Resin Globules From Gum Mastic Tree See A Fabulous Cashew Apple And Nut Pink Peppercorns From Peruvian Pepper Tree Plants Of The Sumac Family (Anacardiaceae) See WAYNE'S WORD Poison Oak Article See The Seed Lac Excretion Of Lac Insect 7. Annonaceae: Custard Apple Family Back To Alphabet Table Annona cherimola Cherimoya A. muricata Soursop A. reticulata Custard Apple A. squamosa Sugar Apple Asimina triloba Papaw Cananga odorata Ylang-Ylang (Ilang-Ilang) [Flowers the are source of cananga oil used in perfumes.] Asimina trilobata Pawpaw [A smaller, pulpy berry of the Annonaceae that grows wild in North America; it comes from a small deciduous tree native to forested regions of the eastern and southestern United States.] See Soursop Growing On A Tree Trunk See A Delicious, Ripe Cherimoya Fruit Delicious, Ripe Sugar Apple On A Tree See The Unusual Flowers Of Ylang-Ylang 8. Apiaceae: Carrot Family (Umbelliferae) Back To Alphabet Table Anethum graveolens Dill Anthriscus cerefolium Chervil Apium graveolens Celery [Edible leaf stalks or petioles.] Carum carvi Caraway Coriandrum sativum Coriander [Seeds used as a tasty seasoning; aromatic leaves (called cilantro) used as garnish and in salsa and guacamole dishes.] Cuminum cyminum Cumin Daucus carota Carrot [Edible taproot; also called Queen Ann's lace when flowering.] Foeniculum vulgare Fennel [Edible petioles; seeds used like anise for licorice flavoring in cady, medicines, perfumes, liquor and soap; true licorice from root of a perennial legume. Pastinaca sativa Parsnip [Edible taproot; similar to the deadly poisonous water hemlock.] Petroselinum crispum Parsley [Leaves used as garnish and possibly to freshen breath after eating.] Pimpinella anisum Anise Note: Two very poisonous species in this family with parsnip-like roots and parsely-like leaves that you do NOT want to use as greens in salads or cooked as vegetables. They typically grow along streams or in wet bottom lands: 1. Cicuta douglasii Water Hemlock [One large taproot in a salad can be fatal to an adult human; causes convulsions.] 2. Conium maculatum Poison Hemlock [The infamous hemlock supposedly used on Socrates; purple dots on stems; can be fatal without convulsions. Herbs & Vegetables Of Carrot Family See Coriander & Cilantro Compared See Leaf Bases & Seeds Of Sweet Fennel See The Large Edible Root Of Parsnip See The Petioles & Root Of Celery See Edible Taproots of Daucus carota See Large Field Of Dill In Montana See Poison Hemlock & Water Hemlock 9. Apocynaceae: Dogbane Family Back To Alphabet Table Carissa grandiflora (C. macrocarpa) Natal Plum Catharanthus roseus Madagascar Periwinkle [Source of the anti-tumor alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine.] Dyera costulata Jelutong [Important Malaysian timber tree; jelutong latex mixed with chicle for chewing gum.] Rauvolfia serpentina Snakeroot [Source of the medical alkaloid reserpine.] See The South African Natal Plum Plants Producing Medical Alkaloids Plants Used For Rubber & Chewing Gum 10. Aquifoliaceae: Holly Family Back To Alphabet Table Ilex species Holly [The bright red berries of several North American species are used for wreaths and colorful decorations at Christmas time.] I. paraguariensis Yerba Mate [A popular tea is brewed from the dried, crushed leaves of this South American holly; in "mate cocido" the leaves are toasted during the drying process; yerba mate contains about 1% caffeine compared with more than 5% for guarana.] I. opaca, I. glabra and I. cassine Holly [North American species in which the dry, roasted leaves are occasionally used for teas.] Yerba Mate Tea Sipped From A Gourd 11. Araceae: Arum Family Back To Alphabet Table Colocasia esculenta Taro and Dasheen [Source of Polynesian dish poi; from starchy subterranean corms; some botanists refer to dasheen as variety antiquorum; cultivated plants with huge leaves called elephant ears.] Monstera deliciosa Monstera or Ceriman [Edible multiple fruit or spadix.] See Taro Corms And Taro Plants See Fruit Of Monstera Deliciosa 12. Araliaceae: Aralia Family Back To Alphabet Table Panax ginseng and P. quinquefolius Asian & North American Ginseng. [Medicinal tea from fusiform taproots.] Tetrapanax papyriferus Rice Paper Plant [Paper made from the pith.] Aralia racemosa American Spikenard [Medicinal herb tea from taproot; the taproot of another species called wild sarsaparilla (A. nudicaulis) is sometimes used in rootbeer. ] See The Remarkable Rice Paper Plant Ginseng Root Used For Medicinal Tea See An Aralia Called Wild Sarsaparilla 13. Araucariaceae: Araucaria Family Back To Alphabet Table Agathis australis Kauri Pine [Important New Zealand source of copal resins for varnishes.] A. dammara (A. alba) Amboina Pine [Another source of copal resins from East Indies & Malaysia.] Araucaria columnaris Cook Pine or New Caledonia Pine [Timber tree native to New Caledonia with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] A. heterophylla Norfolk Island Pine [Timber tree with beautiful grain (knots) produced by whorls of limbs along main trunk.] Note: Baltic amber is the polymerized resin from ancient coniferous forests dating back about 50 million years. The semiprecious gem called Whitby jet is the carbonized remains of ancient conifer forests dating back about 160 million years. See Bowl Made From The Beautiful Cook Pine Article About Amber: Nature's Transparent Tomb The Black, Semiprecious Gem Known As Jet 14. Arecaceae: Palm Family (Palmae): Back To Alphabet Table Calamus spp. Rattan [From several species of climbing palms.] Calamus (Daemonorops) draco Dragon's Blood [Bright red dye from resinous fruit; dragon's blood dye also obtained from resinous sap of Dracaena draco & D. cinnabari (Dracaenaceae).] Ceroxylon andicola Wax Palm [From trunk.] Copernicia prunifera (C. cerifera) Carnauba Wax Palm [Exudation on leaves.] C. alba Carnaday Wax Palm [Waxy cuticle used as secondary industrial source of wax.] Bactris gasipaes Pejibaye Palm [Small palm with spiny trunk; clusters of small orange fruits common in marketplace of Costa Rica during summer months.] Butia capitata Jelly Palm [A South American palm native to Brazil; fleshy mesocarp of drupes with delicious flavor of apricots.] Hyphaene ventricosa Vegetable Ivory Palm [From hard endosperm.] Jubaea chilensis Chilean Wine Palm [Wine made from fermented sap.] Metroxylon amicarum Ivory Nut Palm Phytelephas aequatorialis Ivory Nut Palm [Hard endosperm used for buttons, chessmen, poker chips, dice, knobs, etc; today largely replaced with plastic polymers.] Phoenix dactylifera Date Palm Elaeis guineensis African Oil Palm [Seeds high in saturated fats.] Serenoa repens Saw Palmetto [Small palm native to Florida Everglades region; berries used as herb to maintain healthy prostate gland.] Areca catechu Betel-Nut Palm [Seeds commonly chewed by people throughout the far eastern region.] Cocos nucifera Coconut. [The nutritious meat or "copra" within the seed is endosperm tissue (coconut milk is liquid endosperm); the "coconut apple" is a spongy, sweet mass of cotyledon tissue inside the seed cavity that dissolves and absorbs the endosperm; the "coir" fibers come from the fibrous husk or mesocarp.] There are 2 main types or varieties of coconuts. The niu kafa types have an elongate, angular fruit, up to 6 inches in diameter, with a small egg-shaped nut surrounded by an unusually thick husk. Niu vai types have a larger more spherical fruit, up to 10 inches in diameter, with a large, spherical nut inside a thin husk. The niu kafa type represents the ancestral, naturally-evolved, wild-type coconut, disseminated by floating. The niu vai type was derived by domestic selection for increased endosperm ("meat" and "milk") and is widely dispersed and cultivated by humans. Both types of fruit can float, but the thicker, angular husk adapts the niu kafa type particularly well to remote atoll conditions where it can be found today. See Noteworthy Plants Vegetable Ivory Article Read About The Ocean Dispersal of Coconuts See The Fruit Of A Coconut Called A Dry Drupe See The Details Of A Sprouting Coconut Fruit The Truth About The Infamous Coconut Pearl See Pejibaye Palm (Peach Palm) In Costa Rica See African Oil Palm & Palm Fruits In Costa Rica See The Saw Palmetto Of S.E. United States See Fleshy Drupes Of South American Jelly Palm See The Betel-Nut Palm & Betel-Nut Necklace See Unpollinated & Pollinated Fruits Of Date Palm See Jubaea chilensis: The Chilean Wine Palm See Remarkable Bay-leaf Thatch Palm In Belize Wax From Leaves Of The Carnauba Wax Palm Wax From Leaves Of The Carnaday Wax Palm 15. Aspergillaceae: Aspergillus Family Back To Alphabet Table Aspergillus oryzae Miso Mold [A very important fungus used in the fermentation of soybeans to make miso paste and in the fermentation of rice to make sake.] Penicillium spp. Blue Bread Molds [Although this genus includes some destructive molds of bread and citrus fruits, it also contains some valuable species, including P. roqueforti and P. camemberti which are responsible for Roquefort and Camembert cheese; vital antibiotic drugs such as penicillin are also produced by species of Penicillium, including P. notatum and P. chrysogenum.] See Economically Important Fungi See Miso Paste Made From Soybeans 16. Asteraceae: Sunflower Family (Compositae) Back To Alphabet Table Anthemis nobilis Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called mayweed (A. cotula) in San Diego County.] Matricaria chamomilla German Chamomile [From dried flower heads; weedy species called pineapple weed (M. matricarioides) in San Diego County.] Artemisia dracunculus Tarragon. [Leaves used for seasoning.] A. absinthium Wormwood or Absinthe [Vicent van Gogh (1853-1890) suffered from epilepsy and was treated with digoxin from the foxglove plant (Digitalis purpurea). His famous work, "The Starry Night" contains yellow circles around the stars, which are similar to visual problems described by patients with digoxin toxicity even today. Van Gogh also drank the liqueur absinthe on a regular basis. Absinthe is a green, bitter liqueur primarily flavored with wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), a European herbaceous perennial related to the native sagebrush species (Artemisia) of the western United States. Absinthe also contains thujone, a terpenoid component of many essential oils, including those found in Artemisia and the coniferous genus Thuja. Research has shown that thujone not only fuels creativity, but also that an overdose of the compound causes yellow-tinged vision. Either absinthe or digoxin toxicity may have contributed to van Gogh's increasing use of the color yellow in the last years of his life; or perhaps van Gogh may simply have loved the color yellow.] Carthamus tinctorius Safflower. [Oil from seeds.] Cichorium endivia Endive [Leaves used as garnish and herb.] C. intybus Chicory. [Taproot roasted and ground, used as an adulterant in coffee; a weed in western U.S.] Cynara scolymus Globe Artichoke [Immature flower heads are cooked and eaten; the tender receptacle and "meaty" phyllaries are dipped in butter.] C. cardunculus Cardoon or Thistle Artichokes [Globe artichoke derived from this species and may be only be a variety rather than a separate species; inner leaves and petioles (leaf stalks) are edible; flower heads used for dry flower arrangements.] Echinacea purpurea Echinacea [Herb used to boost immune system.] Helianthus annuus Sunflower [Tasty, nutritious edible seeds produced in large heads; also valuable unsaturated oil from seeds.] H. tuberosus Jerusalem Artichoke [Sunflower with edible tubers similar to small potatoes.] Lactuca sativa Lettuce [Leafy compact head; many varieties, romaine lettuce with more elongate leaves; related to prickly lettuce (L. serriola), a common weedy species in San Diego County.] Parthenium argentatum Guayule [Only important U.S. source of rubber.] Silybum marianum Milk Thistle [A prickly herb used to detoxify the liver.] Tagetes lemmonii Scented Marigold [An aromatic shrub with fragrant foliage used for a tea.] Taraxacum officinale Dandelion [Leaves used in salads and cooked as a vegetable.] Tragopogon porrifolius Salsify or Oyster Plant [Cooked taproot with flavor of oysters; weedy species in western U.S. resemble large, blue-flowered dandelions; cross pollination with yellow-flowered T. dubius resulting in sterile diploid (2n=12) and fertile tetrapolid (2n=24) hybrids; in fertile, blue-flowered tetraploids, all haploid sets (n=6) from each parent have a homologous set of chromosomes to pair up with during synapsis of meiosis I; hence viable gametes and seeds are produced.] Parachute Seeds Of Tragopogon Related To Salsify See Photo Of Rubber-Producing Guayule Plant See Photo Of Jerusalem Artichoke Or Sunchoke Edible Sunflower Seeds & Valuable Sunflower Oil See Edible Flower Heads Of The Globe Artichoke Flower Head & Parachute Seeds Of Thistle Artichoke See Photo Of The Flowers & Leaves Of A Dandelion Chicory: A Dandelion Relative Used In Coffee See The Root Of Japanese Burdock Or Gobo See Photograph Of The Herb Called Echinacea See Photograph Of The Herb Called Milk Thistle See Photograph Of The Herb Called Tarragon Photograph Of The Shrub Called Scented Marigold See Photograph Of The Herb Called Absinthe Sunflower Family: World's Largest Plant Family 17. Bangiaceae: Porphyra Family Back To Alphabet Table Porphyra species. Nori [This genus includes a number of species of intertidal red algae that are collected for food in Asian countries; nori is commonly cultivated in shallow muddy bays of Japan; the dried blades are packaged and sold in Asian markets throughout the world; nori provides the tasty black wrapper around sushi, and is also wrapped around crackers and used in soups.] Bangia fusco-purpurea Cow Hair or Hair Seaweed [An intertidal alga with a slender hairlike thallus; this species is eaten like fine pasta in many Asian dishes.] See Photo Of Porphya & Sheets Of Dried Nori 18. Berberidaceae: Barberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Podophyllum peltatum May Apple or Mandrake. [Podophyllum resin or podophyllin from roots and rhizomes; used as an emetic and cathartic; the antineoplasmic glucoside called podophyllotoxin is used in chemotherapy treatment for certain tumors.] Berberis aquifolium Oregon Grape [The berries of several North American species are used in jams and pies; berries of several Middle Eastern species are dried and used like raisins.] Berberis spp. Barberry. [Alternate host of wheat rust (Puccinia graminis), a serious fungus disease of wheat.] See Oregon Grape & Middle East Dried Barberries 19. Betulaceae: Birch Family Back To Alphabet Table Betula spp. Birch. [Beautiful closed-grain hardwood.] Corylus spp. (C. americana & C. cornuta) Hazelnut or Filbert See The American Filbert Or Hazelnut In Its Leafy Involucre See Noteworthy Plants Article About Filbert-Rubber Tree Hybrid 20. Bignoniaceae: Bignonia Family Back To Alphabet Table Jacaranda mimosifolia Jacaranda Tabebuia serratifolia Trumpet Tree or Pao d' Arco [South American hardwood lumber.] T. impetiginosa Pao d' Arco [Herb from inner bark used for immune stimulant.] Parmentiera edulis Guachilote [An interesting cauliflorous fruit related to the calabash.] See Article About Wind Dispersal in Bignonia Family See Photos of Wind Dispersal In The Bignonia Family See Amazing Cauliflorous Fruits Of Parmentiera edulis 21. Bixaceae: Annatto Family Back To Alphabet Table Bixa orellana Achiote or Annatto [Popular red dye (bixin) used for coloring butter and cheeses; dye derived from seeds of spiny red fruits; also used for body paint by South American Indians; chemically similar to beta carotene and may protect skin from UV light.] See Photos Of Achiote (Annatto) Seeds and Fruits 22. Bombacaceae: Bombax Family Back To Alphabet Table Ceiba pentandra Kapok [Silky hairs from capsule; used for waterproof fillers.] Chorisia speciosa Floss Silk Tree Ochroma pyramidale Balsa. [Specific gravity of only 0.19.] Durio zibethinus Durian [An immense, malodorous, spiny fruit from Malaysia.] Pachira aquatica Guiana Chestnut [Large woody seed capsule with edible seeds.] See The Enormous, Spiny Durian Fruits See Large Fruit Of The Guiana Chestnut Cottony Fibers Of Kapok & Floss Silk Tree See The Tropical American Balsa Tree 23. Boraginaceae: Borage Family Back To Alphabet Table Alkanna tinctoria) Dyer's Bugloss [Roots a source of the deep red phenolic dye alkannin (alkanet) used on textiles, vegetable oils, medicines and wine; commonly used today as a food coloring.] Cordia sebestena Ziricote [This Caribbean tree is also known as cericote and geiger tree; the beautiful, dark wood is used in wood carving.] C. subcordata Kou [A Polynesian species with a beautiful, dark-grained hardwood used in wood carving.] Borago officinalis Borage [Leaves & flowers eaten in salads and brewed into tea.] Echium vulgare Viper's Bugloss [Blue flowers added to salads and cooked like spinach.] E. amoenum Gaozaban [Flowers used for a popular medicinal tea in Iran; a rich source of antioxidants, including rosmarinic acid and bioflavonoids.] See Beautiful Ziricote Wood Carvings Medicinal Teas Made From Borago & Echium 24. Brassicaceae: Mustard Family (Cruciferae) Back To Alphabet Table Armoracia lapathifolia (A. rusticana) Horseradish [Pungent relish obtained from the large taproot; a delicious condiment with meat and seafood.] Eutrema wasabi (Wasabia japonica) Japanese Horeseradish or Wasabi [The fleshy rhizome is the source of the green paste called "wasabi" that is commonly served with sashimi (raw fish) in Japan.] Lepidium meyenii (also L. peruvianum) Maca [A wild mustard native to the Andes of South America; the dried, radishlike roots are cooked to form a sweet, aromatic porridge called mazamorra; powdered maca root is sold as a nutritious herb and food supplement; nineteen species of Lepidium are native and naturalized in California.] Brassica campestris (B. rapa ssp. sylvestris) Field Mustard [A common weed in the western U.S.] B. nigra (Black Mustard) & B. alba (White Mustard) [Seeds used for mustard condiment; black mustard is a common weedy species in San Diego County; mustard gas is a synthetic chemical containing sulfur and chlorine, it is not made from mustard seeds.] B. rapa [Rapifera Group] Turnip [Edible root; sometimes referred to as B. campestris; turnip greens from edible leaves; n=10.] B. rapa [Chinensis Group] Bok Choy (Pak-choi). [Cultivated in Asia for succulent leaves.] B. rapa [Pekinensis Group] Chinese Cabbage B. napus Rapeseed Oil and Canola Oil [Unsaturated oil from seeds; 3rd most important edible oil in U.S. after soybean & cottonseed oils.] B. oleracea [Includes following varieties: cabbage (leafy head), kale (non-heading leafy sprout), collards (nonheading leafy sprout), broccoli (immature inflorescence and stalk or peduncle), cauliflower (immature inflorescence), brussels sprouts (tall-stemmed cabbage with small edible heads or buds along stem), kohlrabi (enlarged, edible, basal stem above the ground); all varieties with n=9 and 2n=18; broccoflower a hybrid between broccoli and cauliflower.] B. napobrassica Rutabaga [Tetraploid hybrid between cabbage (n=9) and turnip (n=10); resulting fertile polyploid with 38 chromosomes, 2 sets of cabbage chromosomes (9 + 9) and 2 sets of turnip chromosomes (10 + 10).] Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum (Nasturtium officinale) Water Cress [An aquatic weed in southern California; edible leaves.] Isatis tinctoria Woad [Important blue dye used in Europe during 1500s and 1600s; the glucoside dye indican in leaves; one of dyes used by Robin Hood's men for their green clothing.] Raphanus sativus Radish [A very common weed in San Diego County; edible taproot with many varieties, including white and red radishes; giant oriental radishes 4 feet long and 40 pounds; the large Asian radish called "daikon" belongs to the Longipinnata group of radishes.] Note: The bigeneric hybrid (Raphanobrassica) or Rabbage is a cross between the radish (Raphanus n=9) and cabbage (Brassica n=9). The diploid hybrid has two sets of chromosomes, one set (R) from the radish parent and one set (C) from the cabbage parent. [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Since each set includes 9 chromosomes, the diploid rabbage has a total of 18 chromosomes. The diploid hybrid (RC) is sterile because the radish and cabbage sets of chromosomes are not completely homologous, and fail to pair up during synapsais of meiosis I. A fertile tetraploid (4n=36) hybrid (RRCC) has also been developed. It produces viable gametes and seeds because the radish chromosomes have another radish set to pair up with (RR), and the cabbage chromosomes have another set to pair up with (CC). Unfortunately this wonder plant has the leaves of the radish and the roots of the cabbage. See Brief Discussion About Monounsaturated Canola Oil See Kohlrabi, Broccoflower, Brussels Sprouts, & Rutabaga Bok Choy: A Leafy Mustard Commonly Cultivated In Asia See Massive Taproot Of Wild Radish In San Diego County See The Crispy Red Radish Cultivar Of The Wild Radish See The Large, White Japanese Radish Called Daikon See The Large Taproot Used In Spicy Horseradish Sauce Water Cress: Naturalized Vegetable In Southern California Maca: A South American Lepidium With An Edible Root See Photograph Of A Field Of Woad In Eastern Oregon 25. Bromeliaceae: Pineapple Family Back To Alphabet Table Ananas comosus Pineapple [Also fibers from leaves.] Tillandsia usneoides Spanish Moss [Southeastern U.S.] See Pineapple Plants On The Island Of Kauai 26. Burseraceae: Torchwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Boswellia carteri Frankincense. [Resin obtained from bark.] Commiphora abyssinica Myrrh Protium copal Guatemalan Incense Bursera simaruba Gumbo Limbo B. odorata and B. microphylla Elephant Tree [Native to Baja California; also see another elephant tree (Pachycormus discolor) in Anacardiaceae.] Photos Of Resins And Incenses From Plants 27. Cactaceae: Cactus Family Back To Alphabet Table Opuntia spp. Prickly Pear. [Stem segments edible and called "nopales" in Mexico; ripened fruit called "tuna" or "pitaya dulce."] Opuntia ficus-indica and other spp. Source of the brilliant red cochineal dye [Actual dye from the red body fluids of cochineal insect (Dactylopius coccus), a homopteran related to aphids, scale insects and mealy bugs; female cochineal insects are brushed from the cactus pads, dried, and pigments extrated from dried bodies; one pound of dye represents about 70,000 insects; source of carmine red stain used in microbiology classes; cactus were introduced into Australia for this dye with disastrous consequences; by 1925, 60 million acres of valuable range land covered by prickly pear cactus.] Hylocereus undatus Dragon Fruit [Sweet fruit similar in flavor to lime and kiwi fruit.] Lophophora williamsii Peyote. [Source of alkaloid mescaline.] Trichocereus pachanoi San Pedro Cactus [Another South American source of mescaline.] See The WAYNE'S WORD Alkaloid Article See Photos of Peyote and San Pedro Cactus See Photos of Cochineal Insect On A Cactus See Fruit & Edible Stems (Nopales) Of Opuntia See The Dragon Fruit (Hylocereus undatus) Camelliaceaeae: Camellia Family See Theaceae 28. Cannabaceae: Hops Family Back To Alphabet Table Cannabis sativa Indian Hemp or Marijuana [Resinous flowers and buds of female plant used medicinally and for casual smoking; resin contains several phenolic cannabinoids, including THC; important source of bast fibers from male plants; these plants occasionally sprout from seeds in well-watered, rural areas, such as the Palomar College campus.] Humulus lupulus Hop Vine [Female inflorescences (hops) added to beer to clarify the brew, prevent bacterial action and to improve flavor.] Information About THC From The Female Cannabis Indian Hemp As A Source Of Bast Fibers For Textiles See A Hop Vine And The Hops Used To Make Beer 29. Cannaceae: Canna Family Back To Alphabet Table Canna indica Indian Shot [Round, hard, black seeds used in botanical jewelry.] C. edulis Achira [Grown in Andes for starchy, tuberous rhizome.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Indian Shot 30. Capparaceae: Caper Family Back To Alphabet Table Capparis spinosa Capers [Mediterranean shrub with tasty flower buds used for flavorings, relishes and sauces.] See Tasty Flower Buds Called Capers 31. Caprifoliaceae: Honeysuckle Family Back To Alphabet Table Sambucus spp. Elderberry 32. Caricaceae: Papaya Family Back To Alphabet Table Carica papaya Papaya [Delicious cauliflorous fruit planted throughout the tropics.] See Cauliflorous Papaya Fruits See Delicious Ripe Papaya Fruit Celastraceae: Staff-Tree Family Back To Alphabet Table Catha edulis Khat [Tree native to Arabia & South Africa; leaves contain the stimulant alkaloids cathine & cathinone; fresh leaves chewed and used for tea by inhabitants of this region.] See Images Of Khat (Catha edulis) 33. Chenopodiaceae: Goosefoot Family Back To Alphabet Table Beta vulgaris Beets [Other varieties include sugar beets and Swiss chard; sweet taproot used for beets and sugar beets; tender leaves used for Swiss chard.] Chenopodium album Lamb's Quarters [An edible weed in California; tender leaves cooked and eaten like spinach.] C. quinoa Quinoa [South American herb with edible seeds that are cooked and eaten like a cereal grain; used by native people since pre-Columbian times.] Spinacia oleracea Spinach [Leaves consumed through pipe by Popeye; very nourishing vegetable rich in iron and folic acid.] Family also includes Russian thistle or tumbleweed (Salsola tragus) and halophytic salt marsh species, such as pickleweed (Salicornia). See Photo Of Beets & Swiss Chard See Photo Of Fresh Spinach Leaves See Photo Of Fresh Lamb's Quarters See The Grainlike Seeds Of Quinoa 34. Chrysobalanaceae: Chrysobalanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Chrysobalanus icaco Coco Plum [A shrub or small tree native to the American tropics with a sweet, plumlike fruit.] See Photo Of Coco Plum In Belize Clavicipitaceae: Ergot Family Back To Alphabet Table Claviceps purpurea Ergot [A grain fungus infecting rye and related grasses; the source of synthetic LSD and several important vasconstricting alkaloids such as ergotamine.] See The Infamous Ergot Fungus On Rye Grass Clusiaceae: Clusia Family See Guttiferae Combretaceae: Combretum Family Back To Alphabet Table Anogeissus latifolia Gum Ghatti [A natural gum from the sap of a tree native to dry, deciduous forests of India and Sri Lanka; the common name "ghatti" is derived from the word "ghat" or mountain pass; this gum was originally carried by people over mountain passes or "ghats" to ports in India; the gum has properties intermediate between gum arabic and karaya gum; because it is a superior oil emulsifier with a higher viscosity, it is used in liquid and paste waxes and for fat soluble vitamins. Terminalia catappa Tropical Almond [Malaysian tree naturalized along seashores of the Old and New World tropics, including Florida and the Hawaiian Islands; the oval, flattened, one-seeded fruit is commonly dispersed by ocean currents; the seed superficially resembles an almond and is eaten by natives. Compositae: Sunflower Family See Asteraceae 35. Convolvulaceae: Morning Glory Family Back To Alphabet Table Turbina corymbosa and Ipomoea tricolor Ololiuqui [New World morning glories with seeds containing the alkaloid ergine (d-lysergic acid amide), better known as natural LSD.] Ipomoea batatas Sweet Potato [Edible, fascicled storage roots; many delicious varieties, including red "yams" and white sweet potatoes.] Ipomoea aquatica Water Spinach [A popular, aquatic green vegetable in Asian countries.] Note: True yams belong to the genus Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae). See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Morning Glories See Water Spinach: An Edible Aquatic Morning Glory See Noteworthy Plants Article About True Yams See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Alkaloids Cruciferae: Mustard Family See Brassicaceae 36. Cucurbitaceae: Gourd Family Back To Alphabet Table Cucurbita pepo Summer Squash [Many varieties.] C. maxima Winter Squash [Many varieties.] C. moschata Butternut Squash Note: Many pumpkins are varieties of C. pepo; however, the largest pumpkins probably come from C. maxima. C. mixta (C. argyrosperma) Green-Striped Cushaws C. ficifolia Malabar Gourd Sechium edule Chayote Luffa aegyptiaca and L. acutangula Luffa Sponge Cucumis melon Melon [Many fabulous cultivars.] C. sativus Cucumber C. dipsaceus Teasel Gourds C. metuliferus Horned Cucumber Citrullus lanatus var. citroides Citron Melon Citrullus lanatus var. lanatus Watermelon Momordica charantia Bitter Melon Siraitia grosvenorii (Thladiantha grosvenorii) Luo Han Kuo or Buddha's Fruit [A small Asian gourd with an extremely sweet pulp; a glycoside in the fruit is 150 times sweeter than sucrose and may have economic potential as a non-caloric sugar substitute.] Lagenaria siceraria Hard-Shelled Gourds [Many shapes and sizes.] See WAYNE'S WORD Gourd Article See Buddha's Fruit (Luo Han Kuo) Gourd Family Fruits: Squash & Melons Cucumber Pickles & Teasel Gourd See Dried Gourd Strips Use For Food See The Unusual One-Seeded Chayote 37. Cupressaceae: Cypress Family Back To Alphabet Table Juniperus spp. Junipers (e.g. J. communis) [Berries (cones) used to flavor gin; sloe gin flavored with sloe plum (Prunus spinosa).] Cupressus spp. Cypress [10 endemic species in California; distributed throughout the state in arboreal islands; cones, foliage & bark variation in populations due to selection (glandular vs. eglandular foliage) and genetic drift.] Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Port Orford Cedar Calocedrus decurrens Incense Cedar Thuja plicata Western Red Cedar Cupressocyparis leylandii Leyland Cypress [A bigeneric hybrid between Monterey cypress (Cupressus macrocarpa) and Alaska cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis). There are other species used for lumber often called cedars. Genetic Variation In California Cypress 38. Cycadaceae: Cycad Family Back To Alphabet Table Cycas revoluta Sago Palm [Seeds eaten fresh and roasted; ground seeds should be thoroughly washed because they contain cycasin, a potent carcinogen; the heart of the trunk is baked and eaten, and is the source of sago, a starchy material also obtained from the central pith of palm trunks; sago starch is used in cooking and baking, like the starchy rhizomes of arrowroot (Marantiaceae) and achira (Cannaceae).] C. circinalis [The large seeds used as in C. revoluta.] Note: Seeds of additional species of cycads are used for food, including the African genus Encephalartos in the family Zamiaceae; in tropical and temperate climates, cycads are used extensively in landscaping. See The Seeds Of Cycas circinalis 39. Cyperaceae: Sedge Family Back To Alphabet Table Cyperus papyrus Papyrus [Fibers used in paper making.] Eleocharis dulcis Water Chestnut [Edible, crunchy corms at base of stem.] 40. Cylanthaceae: Cyclanthus Family Back To Alphabet Table Carludovica palmata Panama Hat Palm. [Leaf fibers used to make famous Panama hats which are made in Ecuador.] See A Panama Hat Palm Growing Wild Davidsoniaceae: Davidson's Plum Family Back To Alphabet Table Davidsonia pruriens Davidson's Plum [A monotypic family containing a single species; the plum-like fruits hang in clusters that arise directly from the trunk (cauliflorous); although acidic, they are edible and make excellent jams and jellies.] See Photo Of The Davidson Plum Dilleniaceae: Dillenia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dillenia indica Chulta or Indian Apple [Fleshy fruit pulp is used in curries, jam and jellies.] See The Fruits & Distinctive Leaves Of Dillenia indica 41. Dioscoreaceae: Dioscorea Family Back To Alphabet Table Dioscorea rotundata and D. cayensis Yams [Africa]; D. alata and D. esculenta Yams [Asia]; and D. trifida Yams [New World]. D. elephantipes Hottentot's Bread or Turtleback Plant D. bulbifera Air Potato See World's Largest Vegetable See Yams Named After Dioscorides 42. Dipterocarpaceae: Dipterocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dipterocarpus turbinatus Gurjun Balsam Shorea spp. (Incl. S. aptera, S. hypochra, S. robusta & S. wiesneri) Dammars Dammars: East Indian and southeast Asian resins similar to copals. Like copals they are shiny and transparent when dry and are used extensively in the paint and varnish industry. 43. Ebenaceae: Ebony Family Back To Alphabet Table Diospyros ebenum Ebony D. kaki Japanese Persimmon D. digyna Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) D. virginiana Native Persimmon See Delicious, Ripe Persimmon Fruit See Black Sapote (Black Persimmon) See A Chart Of World's Hardwoods See "Elephant" Carved From Ebony 44. Elaeagnaceae: Oleaster Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian Olive [Yellow fruits eaten fresh and made into jellies.] E. philippinensis Lingaro [Pinkish-red, gland-dotted fruits are reportedly eaten in the Philippines.] E. pungens Silverberry [Fruits used for jams, soft drinks and liqueurs in Japan.] See The Unusual Gland-Dotted Fruits Of Lingaro See Variety Of Russian Olive Called Trebizond Date 45. Elaeocarpaceae: Elaeocarpus Family Back To Alphabet Table Elaeocarpus grandis Blue Marble Tree [The fleshy drupes resemble deep blue marbles. They are reportedly eaten raw in Australia and Fiji. The drupe contains a woody, intricately sculptured endocarp that surrounds several small seeds. The endocarps are often strung into attractive necklaces and leis.] E. ganitrus (E. sphaericus) Rudraksha Bead. [The endocarps are known as "rudraksha beads," and were worn by Shiva worshippers at least since the 11th century.] Rudraksha Beads & Striking Fruits Of Blue Marble Tree Equisetaceae: Horsetail Family Back To Alphabet Table Equisetum arvense Common Horsetail [A tea and capsules made from the dried stems of this and other species are used to maintain a healthy urinary system; the high silicon content is reportedly beneficial for cartilage, ligament and bone repair.] Horsetail Tea For Repair Of Cartilage & Ligaments 46. Ericaceae: Heath Family Back To Alphabet Table Arbutus unedo Strawberry Tree [An interesting European fruit tree related to the madrone tree of Pacific northwestern U.S.] Erica arborea Briarwood [Mediterranean shrub with subterranean basal burl (lignotuber) that is fire-resistant and used for briarwood smoking pipes. ] Gaultheria procumbens Wintergreen [Oil from leaves.] Gaylussacia baccata Huckleberry Vaccinium spp. (V. corymbosum & V. angustifolium) Blueberry V. macrocarpon & V. oxycoccos Cranberry See Smoking Pipe Made From The Burl Of Briarwood See Huckleberry & Bearberry In Rocky Mountains See Hawaiian Huckleberry Near Rim Of Kilauea Crater See Cranberries, An Interesting Shrub Of Acid Bogs Strawberry Tree: An Interesting Fruit From Europe 47. Erythroxylaceae: Coca Family Back To Alphabet Table Erythroxylum coca Coca Shrub [Leaves source of the tropane alkaloid cocaine; not to be confused with the cocoa or cacao tree (Threobroma cacao) in the Sterculiaceae.] Information About The Tropane Alkaloid Cocaine 48. Euphorbiaceae: Euphorbia Family Back To Alphabet Table Croton tiglium Croton [Croton oil from seeds; it is one of the most powerful purgatives known.] Aleurites moluccana Candlenut or Kukui Nut [Seeds rich in unsaturated oil; seeds polished and used for necklaces in Hawaii.] A. fordii Tung Oil [Outstanding unsaturated oil that dries fast and leaves a glossy finish on wood.] Sapium sebiferum Chinese Tallow Tree S. biloculare Arizona Jumping Bean Sebastiana pavoniana Mexican Jumping Bean Euphorbia pulcherrima Poinsettia Hippomane mancinella Manchineel Tree [Apple-like fruits poisoned Columbus' crew on his 2nd voyage to Caribbean in 1493.] Hura crepitans Monkey Pistol or Sandbox Tree [Interesting tropical tree with exploding seed capsules.] Cnidoscolus angustidens Mala Mujer [Painful plant with stinging trichomes similar to nettle but much worse!] Euphorbia antisyphilitica Candelilla Wax [From stems.] Hevea brasiliensis Para Rubber Tree [Most important source of natural rubber.] Manihot glaziovii Ceara Rubber Tree [Lesser known New World source of rubber latex.] M. esculenta Cassava [Tapioca from storage roots.] Ricinus communis Castor Bean [Castor oil from seeds; seeds also contain the protein ricin which is more poisonous gram for gram than cyanide or rattlesnake venom; grows wild in the western U.S.] Rubber From Heavea & Manihot glaziovii See Article About The Castor Bean Shrub See Article About Mexican Jumping Beans See Mala Mujer: Plant With Stinging Trichomes Manchineel Fruit That Poisoned Columbus' Crew See The Cassava Plant: Important Root Crop See Tung Oil Tree And Candlenut (Kukui Nuts) See Photos Of Candelilla And Candelilla Wax 49. Fabaceae: Pea Family (Leguminosae) Back To Alphabet Table Legumes containing water soluble gums and natural dyes: Acacia senegal Gum Arabic [From trunk.] Astragalus spp. (incl. A. gummifer) Gum Tragacanth [Spiny "locoweeds" of Near East and Asia Minor; especially Zagros Mountains of Western Iran; valuable white gum in stems.] Astragalus membranaceus Astagalus Root or Huang Ch'i [A Chinese Herbal Remedy For Boosting The Immune System.] Ceratonia siliqua Carob Tree [Pods ground into carob flour; also the source of locust bean gum.] Indigofera tinctoria Indigo [Beautiful blue dye from leaves.] Caesalpinia echinata Brazilwood [Red dye from heartwood; source of the histological stain brazilin; wood also used for violin bows; planted on campus; major factor in colonization of Brazil by Portuguese.] Caesalpinia sappan Sappanwood [Important red dye from heartwood before aniline dyes.] Haematoxylum campechianum Logwood [Valuable red heartwood dye during 1500s & 1600s; major factor in colonization of British Honduras by England which later became Belize; source of the histological stains hematoxylin and hematein.] Pterocarpus santalinus Red Sandalwood [Blood Red Dye From The Wood.] True gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), gum arabic from Acacia senegal, gum tragacanth from Astragalus gummifera, and algin from the giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera), are complex polysaccharides (made of many sugar molecules joined together) and are used as emulsifiers and thickening agents. See The Carob Tree: A Cauliflorous Species See Photos Of Logwood Tree In Central America See Photo Of Brazilwood And Its Bright Red Dye Powdered Red Sandalwood: A Bright Red Dye Photos And Information About Gum Tragacanth Astragalus Root: Popular Chinese Herbal Remedy Inga edulis Ice Cream Bean Dipteryx odorata Tonka Bean [Seeds from the egg-shaped fruits of this tropical South American tree are used as a substitute for vanilla; the seeds contain the fragrant phenolic compound coumarin which is used in the perfume industry.] Glycyrrhiza glabra Licorice [From roots.] Pachyrhizus erosus Jicama [From large taproot.] Tamarindus indicus Tamarind Medicago sativa Alfalfa Trifolium pratense and T. repens Red and White Clover Melilotus albus, M. indicus and M officinalis White, Indian and Yellow Sweet Clover [Wet or moldy sweet clover contains the anticoagulant compound dicoumarin (a double phenolic ring); dicoumarin is used in rat poison; it is formed by the union of 2 single-ring coumarin molecules; coumarin is found in fresh clover & alfalfa and produces the aroma of new mown hay.] See Tonka Beans: A Source Of Fragrant Coumarin See The Legume Fruits Of The Tamarind Tree See The Tropical American Ice Cream Bean Many species in the legume family have edible seeds (beans) and pods. The following is only a partial list of the many species, some with dozens of cultivated varieties: Phaseolus lunatus (P. limensis) Lima Bean P. vulgaris Common Bean & Kidney Bean P. coccineus Red Runner Bean Faba vulgaris Fava Bean (Broad Bean) Glycine max (G. hispida) Soybean Lens culinaris (Lens esculenta) Lentil Pisum sativum Pea Vicia faba Broad Bean Cajanus cajan Pigeon Pea [Common vegetable seen in Caribbean marketplace.] Cicer arietinum Chick Pea (Garbanzo Bean) Vigna unguiculata Black-Eyed Pea (Cowpea, Southern Pea) V. angularis Chinese Red Bean (Azuki Bean) V. umbellata Rice Bean (Red Bean) V. radiata Mung Bean Canavalia gladiata Sword Bean C. ensiformis Jack Bean Arachis hypogaea Peanut See The Red Runner Bean Of Central America An Assortment Of Nineteen Varieties Of Beans See String Bean, Sugar Snap Pea & Snow Pea Fresh Green Pods Of The Popular Fava Bean Garbanza Bean (Chick Pea) And Mung Beans See Pods & Seeds Of The Soy Bean See Large Pod & Seeds Of The Sword Bean A Subterranean Peanut Out Of The Ground See More Photos Of The Peanut Plant Note: There are many tropical leguminous genera with beautiful seeds used for necklaces and bracelets, including Mucuna, Dioclea, Entada, Abrus, Rhynchosia, Erythrina, Adenanthera, Sophora and Ormosia. One example of a decorative bean is the circassian seed (Adenanthera pavonina), a magical bean from India that is commonly used in seed necklaces. See the Wayne's Word article about seed jewelry for more information and photos. See Article About Magical Beans From India See Wayne's Word Article About Seed Jewelry Copal Resins and Balsams [Balsams are highly aromatic oleoresins.]: Copaifera demeussei South African Copaifera Balsam C. reticulata& C. officinalis Central & South American Copaifera Balsams Myroxylon balsamum Balsum-of-Peru [Used in medicines, soaps and perfumes; gathered in Central America (El Salvador) by "balsameros."] Prioria copaifera Copaiba Balsam from Central America Hymenaea courbaril West Indian Locust [Source of copal varnish & incense.] Hymenaea verrucosum East African Copal See Noteworthy Plants Article About Prioria copaifera See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Resins and Amber 50. Fagaceae: Beech Family Back To Alphabet Table Castanea dentata Chestnut C. sativa European Chestnut Fagus grandiflora Beech Lithocarpus densiflora Tanbark Oak [Bark good source of tannin; tannins unite with certain proteins, such as those in animal skins, to form a strong, flexible, resistant, insoluble substance known as leather; i.e. tannins convert animal hides into leather.] Quercus spp. Oak [Beautiful open-grain, ring porous hardwood.] Quercus suber Cork Oak [Cork obtained from thick, outer bark; planted on Palomar College campus.] See Chestnuts Inside Their Spiny Involucre See The Mature Acorns Of The Cork Oak See Article About Wood Products And Cork Flacourtiaceae: Flacourtia Family Back To Alphabet Table Dovyalis abyssinica Abyssinian Gooseberry D. caffra Kei Apple or Umkokolo D. hebecarpa Ceylon Gooseberry or Ketembilla [Note: The Florida gooseberry or tropical apricot is an artificial hybrid between D. abyssinica and D. hebecarpa.] Flacourtia cataphracta Runealma Plum F. indica Madagascar Plum or Ramontchi F. inermis Martinique Plum or Lovi-Lovi F. rukam Rukam or Indian Prune Pangium edule Buah Keluak or Kepayang [Also known as the kepayang tree of Indonesia & Malaysia; oily, hard-shelled seeds superficially resemble Brazil nuts; meaty seeds are edible after poisonous hydrocyanic acid is removed by soaking and boiling them in water; fermented seeds (called kluwak nuts) become chocolate-brown, greasy and slippery; cooked seeds are used in a number of Malaysian and Indonesian dishes.] See Photo Of Peeled & Packaged Kluwak Nuts 51. Gelidiaceae & Gracilariaceae: Agar Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Gelidium cartilagineum (and other species) Gelidium [An intertidal red alga used for agar.] Gracilaria spp. Gracilaria [Another intertidal red alga used for agar.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Agar is a phycocolloid obtained from several genera of red algae, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. Agar gels have a superior capacity for changing into a liquid when heated, and then readily cooling back into a gel. They are unsurpassed for nutrient media used for tissue culture and in bacteriology (microbiology). See Photo Of Gelidium pulcrum 52. Gigartinaceae: Gigartina Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: This is a family of red algae in the Division Rhodophyta: Chondrus crispus Irish Moss [An intertidal red alga species used for carrageenan.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus). Agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Chemically, agar is similar to carrageenan, except that it has the superior quality of forming stiff gels in smaller concentrations. See Photo Of Irish Moss (Chondrus crispus) Gramineae: Grass Family See Poaceae Grossulariaceae: Gooseberry Family See Saxifragaceae 53. Guttiferae (Clusiaceae): Garcinia Family Back To Alphabet Table Mammea americana Mammee Apple Clusia rosea Pitch Apple [Interesting strangler tree resembling a strangler fig.] Garcinia mangostana Mangosteen [Considered the "queen of tropical fruits."] Garcinia dulcis [Fruit similar to mangosteen, except the fleshy fruit has a yellow interior.] Garcinia hanburyi & G. morella [A yellow dye called gamboge is obtained from the resin.] See A Mammee Apple From Island Of St. John See The Mangosteen: Queen Of Tropical Fruits A Tasty Mangosteen Relative: Garcinia dulcis See Clusia Rosea: A Strangler That Is Not A Fig 54. Hamamelidaceae: Witch Hazel Family Back To Alphabet Table Hamamelis virginiana Witch Hazel [Witch hazel oil, outstanding treatment for hemorrhoids.] Liquidambar styraciflua Sweet Gum See Foliage & Seed Capsules Of Witch Hazel Hydrophyllaceae: Waterleaf Family Back To Alphabet Table Eriodictyon californicum Yerba Santa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; leaves made into a tea and poultice to relieve colds, bronchitis, rheumatism and muscular aches & pains.] See Yerba Santa In San Diego County 55. Hypericaceae: St. John's-Wort Family Back To Alphabet Table Hypericum perforatum St. John's-wort [Flowers used as herb to treat symtoms of mild depression and mood swings; a European wildflower that is naturalized throughout North America; there are also native species of Hypericum in North America, including two species in San Diego County, California.] St. John's-Wort: An Herb To Treat Depression Illiciaceae: Star Anise Family Back To Alphabet Table Illicium verum Star Anise [A tree native to southeast Asia and grown commercially in China for its aromatic seeds and fruits; licorice flavor used in Asian cuisine and in medicines; primary ingredient of Tamiflu used to treat the dreaded avian flu of humans .] See The Unusual Fruits Of Star Anise 56. Iridaceae: Iris Family Back To Alphabet Table Crocus sativus Saffron. [Yellowish-orange dye from elongate stigmas and tips of styles; saffron contains the glycoside crocin (derived from the diterpene crocetin); 4,000 stigmas yields one ounce of dye.] See Saffron: Ground Up Autumn Crocus Stigmas 57. Juglandaceae: Walnut Family Back To Alphabet Table Juglans cinerea Butternut J. nigra Black Walnut J. regia English Walnut Carya illinoensis Pecan C. ovata Shagbark Hickory Note: The "hican" is a hybrid resulting from a cross between the pecan (Carya illinoensis) and the shagbark hickory (C. ovata). Go To Nut Photos And See Pecans In Their Husks See The Black Walnut And A Related Tiny Walnut 58. Krameriaceae: Krameria Family Back To Alphabet Table Krameria grayi and K. parvifolia Krameria [Intricately branched, thorny shrubs of the Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico; partially parasitic on roots of adjacent shrubs; spiny fruits are a tenacious hitchhiker.] See Tenacious Hitchhikers Of The Colorado Desert Labiatae: Mint Family See Lamiaceae 59. Lactobacillaceae: Lactobacillus Family Back To Alphabet Table [Also The Streptococcaceae, Propionibacteriaceae & Acetobacteraceae.] Lactobacillus acidophilus Acidophilus Milk Bacteria [This bacteria converts lactose (milk sugar) into lactic acid, thus making it more digestible to lactose intolerant people.] L. bulgaricus Yogurt Bacteria [A bacteria used in most yogurt and some cheese cultures; L. delbrueckii is also listed for yogurt.] L. casei Cheese Bacteria [Promote the formation of cheese due to their action on milk protein (casein).] L. plantarum Pickle Bacteria. [A lactic acid bacteria used in vegetable fermentations to produce pickles and fermented cabbage called sauerkraut.] Streptococcus thermophilus in the Streptococcaceae is another yogurt-forming bacteria. Streptococcus species are also used in the production of sour cream, butter, buttermilk and cheese. The propionic acid which produces the odor and flavor of Swiss cheese comes from Propionibacterium freudenreichii ssp. shermanii of the Propionibacteriaceae. The unique flavor and odor of limburger cheese is produced by Brevibacterium linens of the Brevibacteriaceae. And the acetic acid of vinegar is produced by vinegar bacteria (Acetobacter aceti) of the Acetobacteraceae. 60. Lamiaceae: Mint Family (Labiatae) Back To Alphabet Table Lavandula officinalis (L. angustifolia ssp. angustifolia) Lavender Marrubium vulgare Horehound [Common in local hills near Palomar College.] Melissa officinalis Balm or Lemon Balm [Leaves used as a flavoring for salads, soups and tea.] Mentha piperita Peppermint M. spicata Spearmint [Wild along San Luis Rey River Of San Diego County.] Monarda didyma Bee Balm or Bergamot [Dried leaves and flowers used to make an aromatic tea; other species also used, including M. citriodora (lemon bee balm or lemon bergamot) and M. austromontana (Mexican bergamot); Note: The bergamot used in Earl Gray tea comes from Citrus bergamia (Rutaceae).] Nepeta cataria Catnip Origanum vulgare Oregano O. majorana Marjoram Rosmarinus officinalis Rosemary [Planted on campus.] Salvia officinalis Sage [Also S. clevelandii in San Diego County.] S. columbariae Chia [Common in local hills.] Thymus vulgaris Thyme Ocimum basilicum Basil Satureja hortensis Savory Mesona chinensis Jellywort [Plants are boiled in water and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] See The Delicious Cooking Herb Called Rosemary See Photographs Of Sages (Salvia) In California Lavender: Source Of Lavender Oil For Perfumes Catnip: An Interesting Herb That Drives Cats Crazy Lemon Balm: A Fragrant Herb Used As A Flavoring Basil: A Fragrant Herb That Enhances Tomatoes Horehound: An Herb Used To Make A Unique Candy See Grass Jelly From Jellywort (Mesona chinensis) 61. Laminariaceae & Lessoniaceae: Kelp Families Back To Alphabet Table Note: These are two families of brown algae in the Division Phaeophyta: Macrocystis pyrifera Giant Kelp [A large kelp or seaweed growing in the kelp beds just beyond the surf zone along the coast of southern California; the large stipes and blades of this species are harvested by kelp cutters and are an important source of algin.] Laminaria spp. Kelp. [Another species of brown alga that commonly grows in the intertidal zone. This species is harvested for food and algin.] Alginates, carrageenans and agars are hydrophilic (water-loving) polysaccharides closely related to gums. Like gums, they absorb water and are used as thickening agents, emulsifiers and to prevent the formation of ice crystals in frozen deserts. They are also referred to as phycocolloids because they all come from algae (phyco) and they form jelly-like, colloidal suspensions in water. Alginates (also called algin) are obtained from species of Laminaria and another macroscopic brown algae called giant bladder kelp (Macrocystis pyrifera) that grows along the coast of southern California. In some fast food restaurants, shakes without the word "milk" were thickened with algin. For this reason they were called shakes rather than milk shakes. Carrageenans are extracted from a red alga called Irish moss (Chondrus crispus), and agar is another phycocolloid obtained from several red algae genera, including Gelidium and Gracilaria. Note: some species of brown algae kelp or seaweed are cooked and used for soups in Japan. Pelagophycus: A Giant Kelp Off The Coast Of San Diego See Giant Bladder Kelp: The Primary Source Of Algin See Dried Kelp (Laminaria) Used For Food In Japan 62. Lauraceae: Laurel Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinnamomum camphora Camphor Tree [Camphor oil from wood, twigs & leaves.] C. zeylanicum Cinnamon [From bark.] Laurus nobilis Sweet Bay Persea americana Avocado or Alligator Pear Sassafras albidum Sassafras [Spicy root bark used in teas, medicines and carbonated beverages, including some recipes for root beer; one of the primary flavorings of old-fashioned root beer is sarsaparilla from the roots of Smilax officinalis, a member of the lily family; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings.] Umbellularia californica California Bay Tree or Oregon Myrtle See Leaves & Fruit Of California Bay Tree See The Trunk Of A large Cinnamon Tree Branches & Products From Camphor Tree See The Autumn Foliage Of Sassafras Tree See Delicious Fruits Of The Avocado Tree Lecanoraceae & Umbilicariaceae: Edible Rock Lichens Back To Alphabet Table Lecanora esculenta Schirsad [Also thought to be the Biblical "mana" by some scholars.] Umbilicaria phaea Rock Tripe [Several species from the northern latitudes are eaten.] Rock lichens have played an important role in the survival of native people and explorers. In addition to providing food for their animals, Indians, Eskimos and Laplanders eat certain lichens. Leafy lichens called rock tripes (Umbilicaria) are eaten raw and are boiled into a thick, mucilaginous soup. Rock tripes are also added to salads or deep fried, and are considered a delicacy in Japan. Throughout history, peasants of Persia have avoided mass starvation by eating the abundant crustose rock lichen Lecanora esculenta. This lichen readily becomes detached in small patches and is blown off the rocks by wind, often accumulating in crevices and under shrubs. It is mixed with meal and made into a kind of bread called "schirsad" in Turkey and northern Iran. In fact, some biblical scholars think this lichen may have been the "manna" which saved the starving Israelites during their exodus from Egypt. Another source of manna in the arid Middle East desert is the dried sap exudate from several species of trees and shrubs inhabiting this region. Rock Tripes Growing On Granite Boulder Crustose Rock Lichens & Desert Varnish 63. Lecythidaceae: Lecythis Family Back To Alphabet Table Bertholletia excelsa Brazil Nut [A giant tree of the Amazon rain forest in South America; the hard brown seeds are produced in large, thick-walled capsules weighing up to 5 pounds; seeds contain 65% to 70% unsaturated fat and literally burn like a candle.] Lecythis ollaria Paradise Nut [Another giant rain forest tree with seeds produced in a thick, woody, potlike capsule.] Couroupita guianensis Cannonball Tree [Large, fragrant, bat-pollinated blossoms develop on woody stalks that push out of the main trunk; the flowers give rise to cannonball-like fruits up to 8 inches in diameter that remain attached to the tangled flower stalks.] See Photos Of Brazil Nuts & Their Pod See Photo Of The Amazing Paradise Nut See Photo Of Remarkable Cannonball Tree Leguminosae: Pea Family See Fabaceae 64. Lemnaceae: Duckweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Lemna spp. Duckweed [Used for waste water treatment; also food for livestock and fish (aquaculture); important organisms in freshwater ecosystems.] Wolffia spp. Watermeal [Potential high protein food source for people; does not contain calcium oxalate crystals as in Lemna; W. globosa is khai-nam (water-eggs) of Thailand, eaten by people as high protein supplement to their diet.] See Mr. Wolffia's On-Line Lemnaceae Home Page Lichen Dyes and Perfumes See Roccellaceae 65. Liliaceae: Lily Family Back To Alphabet Table Aloe vera (A. barbadensis) Aloe [Gelatinous glycoside called aloin from succulent leaves used in soothing lotions, hemorrhoidal salves and shampoos.] Asparagus officinalis Asparagus [Delicious, edible sprouting stems; stems contain methyl mercaptans which cause significant odor in urine when broken down by some people; genus also includes the asparagus "ferns" used in landscaping.] Chlorogalum pomeridianum Soap Plant [In local hills.] Colchicum autumnale Autumn Crocus [Alkaloid colchicine from the bulblike corms.] Smilax officinalis and other tropical American species. Sarsaparilla. [Flavoring from dried roots widely used in carbonated beverages and medicines; along with wintergreen (and sometimes ginger) this was the primary flavoring used in the original recipes for old-fashioned root beer; like many other beverages sold today, most of the popular root beers contain synthetic flavorings; several species of this trailing perennial herb are native throughout North America.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Soap Lilies See Garden Asparagus Plants Growing On Maui See Autumn Crocus: The Source Of Colchicine See An African Species Of Aloe (A. kedongensis) 66. Linaceae: Flax Family Back To Alphabet Table Linum usitatissimum Flax [Valuable stem fibers (bast fibers) used for linen; also source of linseed oil from seeds.] See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 67. Loganiaceae: Logania Family Back To Alphabet Table Buddleia davidii Butterfly Bush [Species of Buddleia are commonly grown as ornamentals for their showy clusters of blue and purple flowers; the fragrant flowers attract a variety of colorful adult butterflies.] Fagraea berteroana [Native tree in Australia and Pacific Islands; Fragrant flowers used in perfumes and leis.] Strychnos nux-vomica Strychnine Tree [Alkaloid strychnine from seeds.] S. toxifera [One of the species containing a form of the alkaloid curarine which is used as an arrow poison.] Note: Curare also obtained from bark and stems of Chondrodendron tomentosum (Menispermaceae). This is the source of curare for the Botany 115 Plant Family Exam #4. See Article About The Beautiful Butterfy Bush See Leaves and Fruit of Fagraea berteroana 68. Malpighiaceae: Malpighigia Family Back To Alphabet Table Malpighia glabra Barbados Cherry [Bright red, cherry-like fruits often seen at Caribbean marketplace.] 69. Malvaceae: Mallow Family Back To Alphabet Table Gossypium spp. Cotton [Epidermal hairs on seeds; different varieties have different lengths of hairs or staple; fruit called a boll; also cottonseed oil; although called a fiber, cotton is not derived from fiber cells; the two primary old world species are the diploids G. arboreum and G. herbaceum while the main domesticated New World species are the tetraploids G. barbadense and G. hirsutum.] Hibiscus cannabinus Kenaf or Gambo Hemp [Yields stem fibers 5 to 10 ft. long.] H. tiliaceus Beach Hibiscus [Useful source of bast fibers for cordage.] H. esculentus (Abelmoschus esculentus) Okra [This vegetable is actually a fruit.] H. sabdariffa Sorrel and Roselle [Reddish capsules harvested at Christmas time in Dominica for a popular drink; roselle fibers similar to kenaf.] Malva sylvestris & possibly M. pseudolavatera High Mallow [The tender young leaves are eaten in salads and cooked like spinach; the purple flowers yield a natural coloring for drinks and herbal teas; the common weed called cheeseweed (M. parviflora) is also cooked and eaten as a vegetable.] Thespesia populnea Milo or Beach Hibiscus [Beautiful dark wood used for carvings and bowls.] See A Cotton Boll--Source Of Cotton Fibers See Beach Hibiscus Used For Its Bast Fibers See A Sorrel Plant In Full Bloom See Sorrel At Marketplace In Dominica See Milo: A Beautiful Polynesian Hardwood See Okra: A Vegetable That Is Also A Fruit See High Mallow (Malva pseudolavatera) 70. Marantiaceae: Arrowroot Family Back To Alphabet Table Maranta arundinacea West Indian Arrowroot [Starchy rhizomes used for food.] Powdered Caribbean Arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea) See Article About Another Arrowroot (Canna edulis) 71. Martyniaceae: Martynia Family Back To Alphabet Table Proboscidea parviflora and other spp. Devil's Claws [Seed capsules used for food and in North American Indian basketry.] See WAYNE'S WORD Article About Devil's Claws 72. Meliaceae: Mahogany Family Back To Alphabet Table Azadirachta india Neem Tree [Oil from seeds used in soaps, shampoos, skin care; leaves used in Indian foods.] Melia azedarach Chinaberry Tree [Commonly cultivated in southern California.] Swietenia macrophylla Honduras Mahogany S. mahogani West Indian Mahogany [Found in Florida Keys.] Sandoricum koetjape Santol or Kechapi [Malaysian tree with yellowish or reddish-brown, juicy fruits that smell like ripe peaches.] See Photo Of The Seldom-Seen Fruit Of Sandoricum koetjape 73. Menispermaceae: Moonseed Family Back To Alphabet Table Chondodendron tomentosum Curare [A deadly extract from the bark and stems of this Amazonian vine is used to coat the darts of blowguns.] Note: Extracts from species of Strychnos, including S. toxifera of the logania family (Loganiaceae), are also used for curare. Another potent alkaloid used to coat the darts of South American blowguns comes from the skin of poison dart frogs of the family Dendrobatidae. See The Amazonian Curare Vine See Colorful Poison Dart Frogs 74. Moraceae: Mulberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Artocarpus altilis (A. communis) Breadfruit A. heterophyllus Jackfruit Castilla elastica Panama Rubber Ficus carica Edible Fig [Hundreds of cultivated varieties, some requiring a pollinator wasp (incl. 'Smyrna' & 'Calimyrna') and some which are parthenocarpic, incl 'Mission' and 'Kadota'.] Ficus pumila Creeping Fig [Juice from the syconia is cooked and then cooled to make a gelatinous material called grass jelly, a refreshing beverage consumed in China.] F. elastica India Rubber Tree F. religiosa [One of the trees inhabited by lac insect that produces shellac.] Broussonetia papyrifera Paper Mulberry [In Palomar College Arboretum; the bark is also used for tapa cloth.] Brosimum utile & B. alicastrum Milk Tree or Palo de Vaca [In Costa Rica, the milky sap is used by locals as a substitute for cream in their coffee.] Maclura pomifera Osage Orange [Hardest of all native hardwoods of eastern U.S.] Morus spp. Mulberry [Some with edible fruits including the black mulberry (M. nigra); M. alba primary food for silkworm.] Native to the Indo-Malaysian region, the jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) is grown throughout the tropics for its pulpy, edible fruits which may reach nearly 3 feet (1 m) in length and weigh up to 75 pounds (34 kg). Jackfruit and its close relative, breadfruit (A. altilis), belong to the diverse Mulberry Family (Moraceae). You have probably heard of the story of Captain Bligh, who tried to bring a load of breadfruit cuttings from Tahiti to the Caribbean in 1789 aboard the H.M.S. Bounty. Enchanted with the Tahitian way of life, his crew mutinied on the voyage. See Photo Of An Amazing Breadfruit Tree In Tahiti See Photo Of An Amazing Jackfruit Tree In Hawaii See Comparison Photo Of A Breadfruit And A Jackfruit See Photo Of The Remarkable Fruit Of Osage Orange See Photograph Of The Very Delicious Black Mulberry Flowers & Multiple Fruit Of The Pakistan Mulberry Silk From A Caterpillar That Eats Mulberry Leaves Photograph Of The Milk Tree (Brosimum) In Costa Rica The Creeping Fig--One Of The Sources Of Grass Jelly Read About Delicious, Wasp-Pollinated Calimyrna Figs Photo Of Seed Lac: Resinous Excretion Of Lac Insect Moringaceae: Moringa Family Back To Alphabet Table Moringa oleifera (M. pterygosperma) Horseradish Tree [This tree is called "malungay" in Asian countries; a small, soft-wooded tree native to India but widely cultivated throughout the tropics; the long beanlike pods are used in soups and curries, and are made into pickles; the young, tender, mustard-favored leaves are eaten raw in salads, cooked as potherbs and placed in soups and curries; even the oily seeds are roasted or fried and apparently taste like peanuts; the pungent root is used as a substitute for the true horseradish of the mustard family or Brassicaceae.] See Two Trees Related To The Horseradish Tree 75. Musaceae: Banana Family Back To Alphabet Table Musa x paradisiaca (M. sapientum) Common Banana [A triploid, seedless hybrid between M. acuminata and M. balbisiana.] M. acuminata Plantain M. textilis Manila hemp or Abaca [Important leaf fiber; source of manilla rope.] Genetics Of Triploid Seedless Banana See Article About Plant Textile Fibers See Photo Of The Manila Hemp Plant 76. Myristicaceae: Nutmeg Family Back To Alphabet Table Myristica fragrans Nutmeg [Large seed is the nutmeg of commerce; reddish outer layer called aril is the source of the spice known as mace.] See Nutmeg Fruit: The Source Of Two Spices 77. Myrtaceae: Myrtle Family Back To Alphabet Table Eucalyptus camaldulensis Red Gum [Source of gum kino, a phenolic compound.] E. globulus Blue Gum [Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) from leaves.] Pimenta dioica Allspice or Pimento [From dried unripe fruits.] Pimenta racemosa Bay Rum Tree [Essential oil from leaves used in cologne.] Psidium guajava Guava [Fruit rich in vitamins A, B, and C.] P. cattleianum Strawberry Guava [Planted on campus.] Feijoa sellowiana Pineapple Guava [Planted on Campus.] Syzygium (Eugenia) aromaticum Clove [From unopened flower buds.] Syzygium (Eugenia) malaccensis Mountain or Malay Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) jambos Malayan Rose Apple Syzygium (Eugenia) paniculatum Australian Brush Cherry Eugenia uniflora Surinam Cherry Myrciaria cauliflora Jaboticaba [Cauliflorous tree from Brazil with purple, grapelike berries that develop from the trunk and limbs.] Leptospermum scoparium New Zealand Tea Plant [Leaves brewed into a tea to provide vitamin C for Captain Cook's crew.] See Unusual Cauliflorous Berries Of Jaboticaba Tree See Tropical Allspice Berries And Bay Rum Tree See Cloves: Flower Buds From The Spice Islands See Guava, Strawberry Guava & Pineapple Guava Fruits See The Fruit And Flower Of Rose Apple Or Malabar Plum See The Fruit Of The Mountain Apple Or Malay Apple See The Fruit Of The South American Surinam Cherry See The Colorful, Insipid Fruits Of Australian Brush Cherry See New Zealand Tea Plant Used By Captain Cook's Crew The name "gum" can be traced back to the voyage of Captain James Cook to the South Pacific in 1770. Captain Cook discovered the east coast of Australia, called New Holland at that time. In one harbor, the ship's naturalists found so many unusual and beautiful plants that they named it Botany Bay. Eight years later, a fleet of eleven English ships reached Botany Bay with 1,530 people, 736 of them convicts. This marked the establishment of England's most important prison camp of the nineteenth century, and the European settlement of a vast land called Australia. The actual discovery of the genus Eucalyptus is credited to the ship's botanist, Joseph Banks (later Sir Joseph Banks). One of the newly discovered species "red bloodwood" (E. gummifera) had a reddish gum exuding from its trunk, and the naturalists called it a "gum tree." Other species of eucalyptus with persistent bark fall into five additional groups, called ironbarks (bark hard and deeply fissured), peppermint barks (bark finely fibrous), stringy barks (bark long and fibrous), boxes (bark rough and fibrous), and bloodwoods (bark rough, cracked and scaly on trunk and large limbs). Another group of large trees, called ashes, have rough bark on the trunk but smoother bark on the branches. In fact, the mountain ash (Eucalyptus regnans) rivals the California redwoods as the world's tallest trees. With about 500 described species dominating more than 80 percent of Australia's forests, it is convenient to categorize them within different groups based upon their bark type. In fact, one of the most striking species with thick, deeply furrowed, persistent black bark is the red ironbark (E. sideroxylon), commonly planted at Palomar College. In addition to tree forms, there are numerous drought resistant, shrubby eucalyptus called mallees. Some of these resprout from subterranean lignotubers like many of our chaparral shrubs. One of these (Eucalyptus macrocarpa) produces spectacular red blossoms and the largest seed capsules of any eucalyptus. Some mallees of parched desert regions store water in their roots, a fact well-known to Australian aborigines. See Spectacular Eucalyptus Macrocarpa in Full Bloom See The Fire-Adapted Lignotuber of a Chaparral Shrub See Photos Of Eucalyptus In Article About Hardwoods Chemically the eucalyptus "gums" are rich in tannins (kinotannic acid) and are similar to another phenolic compound called catechu. They are known in the trade as kinos or gum kinos and are used as tannins to convert animal hide into leather. One of the main Australian sources of kino is the common red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis), naturalized throughout San Diego County. Kino gums are also used medicinally as astringents to relieve throat irritation, dysentery and diarrhoea. True polysaccharide gums, such as locust bean gum from the carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), and chicle, a terpene gum from the latex sap of the sapodilla tree (Achras zapota), are chemically quite different. They all probably serve to seal off wounds and prevent bacterial and fungal infections. Oil of eucalyptus (eucalyptol) is a volatile terpene compound (called an essential oil) which is distilled from the leaves of several species. It is used for flavorings, dentifrices, cough drops, and for the synthesis of menthol. The lemony fragrance from the leaves of lemon-scented gum (E. citriodora) is due to another volatile terpene called citronellal. One of the reasons that few plants will grow well beneath naturalized gum forests in southern California is that volatile terpenes from fallen leaves are leached into the soil, thereby inhibiting seed germination and growth of competing species. The wood of different species of eucalyptus varies considerably, from wood as soft as pines to very hard, close-grained wood as dense as oak and hickory. Eucalypts constitute most of the forest vegetation of Australia and are one of the most important hardwood timber resources in the world. There are a number of species that provide excellent lumber for furniture, wood-carving and construction, including karri (E. diversicolor), spotted gum (E. maculata), blackbutt (E. pilularis), and jarrah (E. marginata). In fact, jarrah is stronger and more durable than oak and resistant to termites and marine borers. During the late 1800s and early 1900s several species of gums (including E. camaldulensis and E. globulus) were extensively planted in California for lumber, firewood, windbreaks and railroad ties. Although the species selected for extensive plantings grew into forests very rapidly, the wood proved very undesirable for lumber and railroad ties because of extensive splitting during the drying process. Today, these extensive forests have forever changed the character of coastal southern and central California. Nelumbonaceae: Water Lotus Family Back To Alphabet Table Nelumbo nucifera Asian Water Lotus [The seeds are eaten raw and roasted; the thick, starchy rhizomes are boiled, stir-fried and pickled.] See Flowers, Receptacle & Seeds Of Water Lotus Nostocaceae: Nostoc Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Nostoc commune Star Jelly [A freshwater cyanobacterium that is eaten raw, dried, stir-fried and in soups. It is sold dried in Asian markets.] Nostoc flagelliforme Fat Choy or Fa Cai [A filamentous, terestrial cyanobacterium of northern and northwestern China; the Cantonese and Mandarin names mean "hair vegetable" because the hair-like strands resemble black hair when dry.] More Information About Fat Choy See Nostoc Balls In A Vernal Pool 78. Nyctaginaceae: Four O-Clock Family Back To Alphabet Table Bougainvillea glabra Bougainvillea Mirabilis laevis Wild Four O'Clock 79. Oleaceae: Olive Family Back To Alphabet Table Fraxinus spp. Ash [Beautiful light open-grain wood.] Jasminum officinale Jasmine [From flowers, used for perfume & teas.] Olea europaea Olive [Native to the Mediterranean region; fresh olives (drupes) are extremely bitter due to oleuropein, a phenolic glucoside; olives soaked in lye (sodium hydroxide) to remove the bitter oleuropein; olives picked green are oxidized in air to produce black color; green olives kept submerged will retain green color; pitted green olives often stuffed with pimento, a bright red Capsicum cultivar; unlike most unsaturated plant oils which come from seeds, monounsaturated olive oil is obtained from the pulp or mesocarp of the fruit; virgin olive oil is obtained from the 1st pressing.] Syringa vulgaris Lilac [Not the same as California lilac or Ceanothus.] Read About Monounsaturated Olive Oil See Canned & Mature Olives On Branch 80. Orchidaceae: Orchid Family Back To Alphabet Table Vanilla planifolia (V. fragrans) Vanilla [From fermented and dried seed capsules called vanilla beans.] V. pompona West Indian Vanilla Note: Imitation vanilla flavorings sold in markets are synthetic vanillin containing artificial food coloring & preservatives; vanillin is a phenolic compound derived from lignin. Photos & Information About The Vanilla Orchid Oscillatoriaceae: Oscillatoria Family (Kingdom Monera) Back To Alphabet Table Spirulina platensis Spirulina [A cyanobacterium found in alkaline and saline water; it is dried into a powder and sold as a nutritious, high protein food supplement.] 81. Oxalidaceae: Oxalis Family Back To Alphabet Table Averrhoa carambola Carambola [An elongate, angular fruit composed of 5 carpels with a star-shaped cross section; the tartness is due to calcium oxalate crystals in the flesh which dissolve in the saliva forming oxalic acid.] Averrhoa bilimbi Cucumber Tree [An interesting Malayan tree with edible cauliflorous fruits.] Oxalis albicans ssp. californica, O. corniculata ssp. corniculata, and O. cernua Oxalis or Sour Grass [Native and naturalized species on the Palomar College campus.] See Photo Of The Amazing Carambola Fruit See Photo Of The Cauliflorous Cucumber Tree Palmaceae: Palm Family See Arecaceae Palmae: Palm Family See Arecaceae 82. Pandanaceae: Pandanus Family Back To Alphabet Table Pandanus tectorius Pandanus [Polynesian plant resembling a palm with prop roots; leaves used for baskets, floor coverings, mats and thatching for houses; woody, seed-bearing sections (containing edible seeds) used for necklaces and leis.] See Photos Of Remarkable Pandanus Plant 83. Papaveraceae: Poppy Family Back To Alphabet Table Papaver somniferum Opium Poppy [Source of isoquinoline alkaloids codeine, morphine, & diacetylmorphine (heroin); also poppy seeds.] See Opium Poppy: Source Of Narcotics & Poppy Seeds 84. Passifloraceae: Passionflower Family Back To Alphabet Table Passiflora edulis, ligularis, & quadrangularis [Granadilla or passion fruit used in Hawaiian Punch; passion fruit vines planted on campus.] See The Fruit & Blossom Of Passionflower Pedaliaceae: Pedalium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sesamum indicum Sesame [Herb with oil-rich seeds; tasty seeds sprinkled on breads, cakes, cookies and candies.] See Flower & Seeds Of Sesame Plant Phallaceae: Stinkhorn Fungus Family Back To Alphabet Table Dictyophora indusiata Basket Stinkhorn or Bamboo Mushroom [A tropical stinkhorn fungus with a lacy, netlike veil that hangs down from the phalluslike head; dried stinkhorns are packaged and sold in Asian markets; they are cooked in water and eaten in vegetarian dishes.] See Photos Of The Stinkhorn Fungus See Photo Of The Basket Stinkhorn 85. Phytolaccaceae: Pokeweed Family Back To Alphabet Table Phytolacca americana Pokeweed or Poke Salet [Native American weed or potherb; the young leaves are cooked and eaten like spinach.] See Pokeweed And Closely Related Ombu Tree Pittosporaceae: Pittosporum Family Back To Alphabet Table Billardiera cymosa Sweet Appleberry [Native to Australia; fruits eaten by Aborigines.] Billardiera longiflora Purple Appleberry [Native to Australia; evergreen climbing shrub.] Billardiera scandens Appleberry [Native to Australia; edible fruit used in baked pastries.] 86. Pinaceae: Pine Family Back To Alphabet Table [An extremely important family for lumber and wood distillation products.] Abies balsamea Canada Balsam [Oleoresin from bark used as a mounting medium for microscope work.] Other species of Abies Fir [Used for boxes, crates, and Christmas trees.] Picea spp. Spruce. [Wood used for pulpwood, boxes, etc. Because it is resonant it is much used for sounding boards of pianos and the bodies of violins and similar instruments; Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) is used for boats, oars, and other products; spruce gum comes from the sapwood of red spruce (P. rubens); very beautiful conifers.] Pinus spp. Pines. [Economically important lumber trees.] Pines are very important lumber trees, e.g. eastern white pine (P. strobus), lodgepole pine (P. contorta), and ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa); raw turpentines are oleoresins (liquid resins containing essential oils) exuded as pitch; "spirits" of turpentine from distilled pitch; rosin is left after the volatile "spirits of turpentine" are removed; most raw turpentine from longleaf pine (P. palustris), loblolly pine (P. taeda) and slash pine (P. elliottii); slash pine also used in pulpwood industry for making paper; European sources of turpentines include cluster pine (P. pinaster) and Scotch pine (P. sylvestris). Pseudotsuga menziesii Douglas Fir [Most important timber tree in U.S.; common type of wood (plywood and 2 X 4's) sold at lumber yards.] Tsuga spp. Hemlock (e.g. T. canadensis) [Also used for lumber, etc; bark is chief domestic source of tannin in U.S.] Larix spp. Larch [Wood used for building construction, fences, etc.] Other wood distillation products from pine family (mostly pines) is wood alcohol (methanol); however, hardwood angiosperms are the main source. Also pine nuts from the following species of Pinyon Pines: P. monophylla, P. edulis, and P. quadrifolia. Other native California pines: P. sabiniana (digger pine), P. coulteri (Coulter pine), P. torreyana (Torrey pine). Pignolia Nuts from Italian Stone Pine (P. pinea) also planted on Palomar College campus. See Article About Wood & Wood Products See Images Of Spruce & Uses By Native People See Images Of Larch (Larix), A Deciduous Conifer Photos Of Resins & Incenses From Plants 87. Piperaceae: Pepper Family Back To Alphabet Table Piper nigrum Black Pepper [The dried, black, seed-bearing berries are the source of "fresh ground pepper."] Piper methysticum Kava Kava [Drink made from roots used in Polynesian religious and social life; a popular herb sold throughout the world as a mild sedative and tranquilizer.] See Photo Of Fresh And Dried Black Peppers. See Photo Of The Amazing Kava Kava Plant. Plantaginaceae: Plantain Family Back To Alphabet Table Plantago spp. Plantain or Psyllium [The thickening and swelling of soluble fiber extracts such as Metamucil(R) and Hydrocil(R) involves imbibition. These plant products contain a mucilaginous gum derived from the husks of psyllium seeds (Plantago psyllium and P. ovata). Psyllium powder readily absorbs water and forms a smooth bulky mass that moves through the intestinal tract. Insoluble fiber comes from the indigestible cellulose cell walls of fruits and vegetables. Both types of fiber are beneficial in maintaining a healthy colon, particularly in older adults with diverticulosis.] See Close-up Photo Of Fresh Plantain Seeds 88. Poaceae: Grass Family (Gramineae) Back To Alphabet Table This Is A Very Important Family For People And Herbivorous Animals! 1. Food for people and livestock: Rice (Oryza sativa), wheat (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale cereale), oats (Avena sativa), barley (Hordeum vulgare), corn or maize (Zea mays), teosinte (Zea mexicana) the ancestor of corn (madre de maiz); sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), and many other species; also bamboo shoots used in Chinese and Cantonese foods. Rye (Secale cereale) is a diploid plant (2n) composed of 2 sets of chromosomes (DD), each set with 7 chromosomes (D=7). [Note: The word "set" is defined here as one haploid set of chromosomes.] Therefore, the diploid number, or number of chromosomes in the rye sporophyte (DD), is 14. Bread wheat is a hexaploid (6n) composed of 6 sets of chromosomes (AA, BB & CC), each set with 7 chromosomes (A=7, B=7, C=7). Therefore, the number of chromosomes in the wheat hexaploid sporophyte (AABBCC) is 42. Triticale (Triticosecale) is a bigeneric hybrid between wheat (Triticum aestivum n=21) and rye (Secale cereale n=7). The resulting hybrid (ABCD) contains one set of rye chromosomes (D) and 3 sets of wheat chromosomes (ABC), a total of 28 chromosomes (7 + 21). It is sterile because the rye (D) set has no homologous set to pair up with during synapsis. This sterile hybrid seedling is treated with colchicine to produce a plant with twice as many chromosomes (i.e. 2A's, 2B's, 2C's and 2 D's), a total of 56. The fertile hybrid is an octoploid (8n) because it contains 8 sets of chromosomes. The diploid rye plant (DD) can also be crossed with tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum AABB) to produce a sterile triploid hybrid with 3 sets of chromosomes (ABD). This hybrid is treated with colchicine to produce a fertile hexaploid (6n) version of triticale (AABBDD). Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum ) is derived from wild emmer wheat of Syria. Emmer wheat is a tetraploid hybrid (4n=28) between einkorn wheat (T. monococcum or a relative) and a grass similar to the present-day goat grass (T. speltoides = Aegilops speltoides); or possibly T. longissima or T searsii. The original diploid (2n=14) emmer wheat was probably sterile because it contained only 2 sets of chromosomes, one from the einkorn parent (n=7) and one from the goat grass parent (n=7). Through a natural doubling of the chromosomes, a fertile tetraploid emmer wheat with 4 sets of chromosomes was produced. A mutation in the tetraploid emmer wheat, causing the bracts (glumes) enclosing the grain to break away readily, gave rise to the tetraploid durum wheat (T. turgidum or T. turgidum var. durum). The readily detachable grain makes the separation of the grain from the chaff relatively easy and is why durum wheat is called a "free-thrashing" type of wheat. Tetraploid wheat also contains two proteins that combine to form a tenacious complex called gluten. Because of gluten, the wheat flour becomes elastic when mixed with water and kneaded, and when yeast is added, it rises into firm loaves. Yeast cells in the dough undergo fermentation and release carbon dioxide which becomes trapped in the glutinous protein mass. Baking "sets" the dough by drying the starch and denaturing the gluten protein. As the dough bakes, the carbon dioxide gas expands into larger bubbles, thus producing the porous, spongy texture of bread. Corn does not make good loaves of bread because it lacks gliadin, one of the key proteins of gluten. Consequently, corn bread crumbles and falls apart easily. See Photo Comparison Of Corn Bread & Wheat Bread Bread wheat (T. aestivum) is also a free-thrashing type of wheat. It is a hexaploid (6n) hybrid, four sets from an emmer wheat parent and two additional sets from a wild, weedy species (T. tauschii = Aegilops squarrosa). The endosperm of this hybrid wheat is especially high in protein and surpasses other wheats for bread making. 2. Main source of sugar (sucrose): Sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum). 3. Alcoholic Beverages: a. Beer. Malt sugar (maltose) from germinating barley; starch inside grains converted into maltose. b. Sake. Made from fermented rice. c. Other distilled beverages. Whiskey made from maize, rye, etc.; bourbon made primarily from maize; scotch made from barley malt; vodka made from wheat; rum is made from sugar cane; gin is made from barley malt and rye, and flavored with oil of juniper; brandy is distilled from wine or other fruit juices (it may be 65 to 70 percent alcohol or 130 to 140 proof; some German whiskies are made from potatoes. 4. Various types of timber bamboo used for construction and scaffolding: Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, etc. 5. Oil of Citronella: From leaves of Cymbopogon nardus. 6. Job's Tears (Coix lacryma-job) [A fascinating grass used for bead jewelry.] Job's Tears, Teosinte, And Indian Corn See Broomcorn: A Variety Of Sorghum See Sorghum Or Milo (Sorghum bicolor) See Photos Of Important Cereal Grasses Bamboo: Economically Valuable Giant Grasses See Sugar Cane On The Island Of Kauai 89. Polygalaceae: Milkwort Family Back To Alphabet Table Polygala senega Senega Snakeroot [Drug senega from dried roots.] 90. Polygonaceae: Buckwheat Family Back To Alphabet Table Fagopyrum sagittatum Buckwheat [Flour from achenes.] Eriogoum Wild Buckwheat [A large genus of shrubs, annuals and perennials in California; one of the largest genera in California with over 112 different species; rivaled in size (in California) only by the genus Carex.] Coccoloba uvifera Sea Grape [A spawling shrub or small tree along the shores of Caribbean islands; grapelike clusters of fruits noted by Columbus on his first voyage to the New World.] Rheum rhaponticum Rhubarb [Eat petioles (leaf stalks) only because leaf blades contain high levels of toxic oxalates.] Rumex hymenosepalus Wild Rhubarb [Wild in several coastal riverbeds, such as the San Dieguito Riverbed); also a tanning material from roots called canaigre containing about 30% tannin.] A Sea Grape On The Caribbean Shore Costa Rica See The Edible Petioles (Leaf Stalks) Of Rhubarb See Nutritious Achenes Of The Buckwheat Family 91. Portulacaceae: Purslane Family Back To Alphabet Table Portulaca oleracea Purslane [Common prostrate weed with edible, succulent leaves and stems; a C-4 plant, grows rapidly during hot summr months in southern California.] Montia perfoliata (Claytonia perfoliata) Miner's Lettuce [Common native plant in California; leaves and stems used in salads; other weedy species in this family used as pot herbs.] Purslane: A Delicious Pot Herb And Classic C-4 Plant 92. Proteaceae: Protea Family Back To Alphabet Table Macadamia integrifolia and M. tetraphylla Queensland or Macadamia nut [In Palomar College Arboretum.] Banksia and Hakea [Drought resistent shrubs planted on Palomar College campus.] See Helicopter Seeds of Banksia and Hakea See Macadamia Nuts In Their Husks Pseudomonadaceae: Pseudomonas Family Back To Alphabet Table Xanthomonas campestris Xanthan Bacteria [Xanthan gum is produced by fermenting corn sugar with this bacteria; the bacteria produce xanthan as part of their cell walls; xanthan gum is used in many food products, including salad dressings and low cholesterol egg substitutes made from egg whites and vegetable gums.] Pteridacaceae: Bracken Fern Family Back To Alphabet Table Pteris ensiformis Hoko-shida or Sword Brake [In Asian countries the young, uncurling fronds (called fiddleheads) are cooked and eaten with rice or other vegetables.] Pteridium aquilinum Braken Fern [Another species with edible fiddleheads; in San Diego County the gathering of fiddleheads is strictly prohibited because local populations of bracken fern could be decimated.] Bracken Fern Fiddlehead In San Diego County 93. Punicaceae: Pomegranate Family Back To Alphabet Table Punica granatum Pomegranate See A Ripe Pomegranate Fruit No Families With Q Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 94. Resedaceae: Mignonette Family Back To Alphabet Table Reseda luteola Dyer's Weld According to the textbook for this course Plants In Our World by B. B. Simpson and M. C. Ogarzaly (1995), woad was one of the dyes used to make the green outfits worn by Robin Hood's men deep in Sherwood forest. Their clothing was dipped in a blue dye bath of woad, and then in a bath of yellow weld from the leaves of Reseda luteola, a member of the mignonette family (Resedaceae). The mixture of blue and yellow produced the characteristic green color associated with England's legendary bandit who robbed from the rich and gave to the poor. 95. Rhamnaceae: Buckthorn Family Back To Alphabet Table Rhamnus purshiana Cascara Sagrada [Laxative cascara from bark.] Ziziphus jujuba Jujube [Small fleshy drupe; also one of the trees inhabited by the lac insect, a source of shellac.] See Jujube Fruits & California Desert Jujube Photo Of Seed Lac: Excretion Of Lac Insect 96. Roccellaceae: Rocella Family Back To Alphabet Table Roccella tinctoria Roccella [The thallus of this lichen contains phenolic acids which serve as a purple-red dye; orcein, a purple-red chromosomal stain found in every microbiology laboratory, is derived from this lichen species.] Lichen acids were the source of important dyes for cotton and wool in medieval Europe. Two purple and red dyes, orchil and cudbear, were obtained from the lichens Roccella and Ochrolechia. Lichen dyes were dissolved in human urine, and the yarns were immersed in this mixture. Ammonia salts in the urine functioned as mordants to make the dyes permanent. Pine lichen or wolf moss (Letharia vulpina), a beautiful chartreuse fruticose lichen that grows on the bark of pines and fir throughout the mountains of the Pacific United States, contains a mildly toxic yellow dye called vulpinic acid. The striking canary-yellow porcupine quills woven into the baskets of Klamoth and Yurok Indians were dyed with this lichen. A brownish dye from the foliose lichen Parmelia omphalodes is used to this day on hand-woven Harris tweeds from the Outer Hebrides. Some lichens contain various phenolic acids and essential oils that produce fragrant odors in scented soaps and help fix the aroma of fine perfumes. For centuries a lovely fruticose lichen called oak moss (Evernia prunastri) has been collected in Europe for making perfume.Through a complex process of solvent extraction and distillation, oak moss has become an important ingredient in the manufacture of perfumes and high-quality cosmetics. This remarkable lichen occurs in California, but air pollution has eliminated it throughout most of its former range in southern California. Oak moss still clings to the branches of ponderosa pines on Palomar Mountain in San Diego County. See Article About Lichens And Desert Varnish See Photos of Lichens Used For Dyes & Perfumes 97. Rosaceae: Rose Family Back To Alphabet Table Cydonia oblonga Quince Eriobotrya japonica Loquat Fragaria spp. (F. x ananassa, F. virginiana, F. chiloensis) Strawberry Prunus americana Wild Plum [Also other plum species used for prunes.] P. amygdalus Almond P. armeniaca Apricot P. avium & cerasus Cherry. P. domestica Garden Plum P. persica Peach P. persica var. nectarina Nectarine Pyrus communis Pear Malus sylvestris (Pyrus malus) [Common Apple and also wild crab apples.] Mesipulus germanica Medlar [A small, deciduous tree native to Europe and Asia Minor; the ripe, apple-shaped pomes are eaten raw and used in preserves.] Quillaja saponaria Soapbark Rosa spp. (R. odorata, R. damascena, R. gallica, R. rugosa) Rose [Numerous cultivated species and hybrid varieties; the fruits are called rose hips, an excellent natural source of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) used in vitamin supplements.] Rubus spp. (R. idaeus, R. occidentalis, R. ursinus) Raspberry, Blackberry, Loganberry, & Dewberry. Apple, Pear, Quince, Loquat, Peach & Cherry Fruits See A Fresh Pluot: A Cross Between The Plum & Apricot See A Fresh Greenish Almond Right From The Tree See A Fresh Apricot With The Pit (Endocarp) Inside See The Aggregate fruit Of A Rose Called A Rose Hip See Aggregate Fruits Of The Blackberry And Strawberry 98. Rubiaceae: Madder Family Back To Alphabet Table Cinchona spp. (C. ledgeriana, C. pubescens, and C. officinalis) Quinine [From bark of several species native to the Andes of South America; important alkaloid in treatment of Malaria.] Genipa americana Genip [Little-known fruit of the West Indies.] Morinda citrifolia Painkiller Tree or "Noni." Coffea arabica Arabian Coffee [From seeds.] Rubia tinctorum Madder [Brilliant scarlet dye from roots; during Revolutionary War, the red coats of British soldiers were colored with this brilliant crimson dye.] Gardenia jasminoides Gardenia [Perfume from fragrant blossoms.] Nertera granadensis Pin Cushion Plant [Decorative little plant sold in southern California during fall months.] See The Red Dye Plant Called Madder See Coffee Plants On The Island Of Kauai See The Painkiller Tree Called "Noni." Pin Cushion Plant With Orange Fruits 99. Rutaceae: Rue Family Back To Alphabet Table Casimiroa edulis White Sapote [Banana-peach flavor.] Murraya koenigii Curry Leaf Tree [Leaves used in curries and curry powder.] Citrus aurantiifolia Lime C. limettioides Sweet Lime C. limetta Sweet Lemon C. aurantium Sour Orange (Bitter Orange) [One of the best oranges for making marmalade.] C. bergamia Bergamot [Perfume from fruit rinds; essential oil from peel also used as a flavoring in hard candy, baked goods, desserts and Earl Gray tea. Note: Bergamot tea comes from leaves of Monarda didyma and M. citriodora (Lamiaceae), also called Oswego tea or bee balm.] C. limon Lemon C. maxima Shaddock (Pomelo) C. medica Citron C. reticulata (C. nobilis) Mandarin Orange or Tangerine C. sinensis Sweet Orange C. x paradisi Grapefruit: Shaddock (C. maxima) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x nobilis Tangor: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Sweet Orange (C. sinensis) C. x tangelo Tangelo: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Grapefruit (C. paradisi) Note: There are many other cultivated varieties of Citrus species. Fortunella japonica Round Kumquat F. margarita Oval Kumquat x Citrofortunella microcarpa Calamondin: Tangerine (C. reticulata) X Kumquat (F. margarita) See Assorted Fruits (Hesperidiums) Of The Citrus Family See Tangelo Hybrid And Its Orange & Grapefruit Parents See Large & Amazing Pomelo--Mother Of The Grapefruit See The Delicious Lime And The Kumquat (Fortunella) See The Delicious Sweet Lime (Citrus limettioides) See The Calamondin (x Citrofortunella microcarpa) See The Sweet White Sapote: Not A Hesperidium See The Curry Leaf Tree (Murraya koenigii) 100. Saccharomycetaceae: Yeast Family Back To Alphabet Table Kluyveromyces marxianus Nutritional Food Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and S. uuvarum Beer, Wine and Bread Yeasts Torulaspora delbrueckii Sherry Yeast Because of their ability to ferment sugars, yeast fungi play a major role in the beer, wine and baking industries. In the brewery, ethyl alcohol (ethanol) from the fermentation process is the primary industrial product; in the bakery, carbon dioxide released from the fermentation process causes the dough to rise. There are numerous optimal strains of these fungi adapted for specific types of fermented products. Go to the grass family (Poaceae) to see the numerous alcoholic beverages made from yeast fermentation. Note: The yeast responsible for kefir grains and sourdough bread is Torulopsis holmii in the family Cryptococcaceae. See The Hop Vine Used To Make Beer 101. Salicaceae: Willow Family Back To Alphabet Table Populus balsamifera Balsam Poplar; P. deltoides Cottonwood; P. tremuloides Quaking or White Aspen [Uses include a soft wood for boxes, etc. and as pulpwood in manufacture of paper.] 102. Santalaceae: Sandalwood Family Back To Alphabet Table Santalum album Sandalwood [The valuable scented heartwood of this Old World species is the source of sandalwood oil; other species of sandalwood are also highly prized for their wood; deforestation of native Hawaiian forests was originally due to the exportation of sandalwood.] Note: Red sandalwood (Pterocarpus santalinus) belongs to the legume family (Fabaceae). The powdered wood of red sandalwood is used for a bright red dye. Read About Hawaiian Sandalwood 103. Sapindaceae: Soapberry Family Back To Alphabet Table Sapindus saponaria Soapberry [Planted on Palomar College campus.] Schleichera oleosa Lac Tree [Host for lac insect.] Euphoria longana (Dimocarpus longan) Longan Litchi chinensis (Nephelium litchi) Lychee Nephelium lappaceum Rambutan Blighia sapida Akee Paullinia cupana Guarana [The "cola" of Brazil made from the dried, roasted seeds; guarana contains more than 5% caffeine, compared with about 1% for yerba mate tea.] Noteworthy Plants Article About Soaplily & Soapberry See Photos Of The Delicious Logan, Lychee and Rambutan See The High Caffeine "Cola Of Brazil" Called Guarana See Akee Fruit That Is Poisonous If Eaten At Wrong Stage 104. Sapotaceae: Sapodilla Family Back To Alphabet Table Acras zapota (Manilkara zapota) Sapodilla or Naseberry Tree [Chicle, the latex sap of the sapodilla tree, commonly used in chewing gums, is actually an elastic terpene polymer (polyterpene) similar to natural rubber.] Chrysophyllum cainito Star Apple [Interesting fruit of the Caribbean marketplace.] Palaquium gutta Gutta-Percha [The milky latex sap yields a polyterpene rubber with a number of remarkable uses, from the cores of golf balls to root canals of your teeth.] Pouteria sapota (Calocarpum sapota & C. mammosum) Mamey Sapote [Tropical American tree; large dark browm seeds used in Indian necklaces.] Pouteria campechiana Eggfruit or Canistel [Tropical American tree with delicious, fleshy fruit containing large, brown, shiny seeds.] See Article About Rubber And Chicle See The Amazing Uses Of Gutta-Percha Read About Mamey Sapote And Eggfruit See The Large Fruit Of A Mamey Sapote See An Eggfruit With Shiny Brown Seeds Star Apple From Hawaiian Island Of Maui Saururaceae: Lizard-Tail Family Back To Alphabet Table Anemopsis californica Yerba Mansa [An important medicinal herb used by native Americans and early settlers in California; root made into a tea to relieve indigestion, asthma and to purify the blood; tea also used as liniment for rashes, cuts, bruises and sores; boiled leaves used as poultice for muscular aches and pains.] See Yerba Mansa In San Diego County 105. Saxifragaceae: Saxifrage Family Back To Alphabet Table Ribes spp. Currant and Gooseberry. [Also alternate host of white pine blister rust (Cronartium ribicola); since the white pine is more important economically as well as ecologically, the currants & gooseberries are eradicated in certain forested regions; gooseberries can be differentiated from currants because they are generally very spiny. See California Gooseberries And Currants 106. Scrophulariaceae: Figwort or Snapdragon Family Back To Alphabet Table Digitalis purpurea Foxglove [Heart stimulant (cardiac glycoside) digoxin and digitoxin from leaves.] Plants Producing Medical Glycosides 107. Simmondsiaceae: Jojoba Family Back To Alphabet Table Note: Jojoba was formerly placed in the Buxaceae. Simmondsia chinensis Jojoba [Native shrubs; seeds are edible; oil from seeds used as substitute for whale oil; oil used for wax, polish, and candles.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Jojoba Oil 108. Solanaceae: Nightshade Family Back To Alphabet Table Atropa belladonna Belladonna [Alkaloid atropine from lvs.] Capsicum annuum Red, Wax, Bell and Jalapeno Chile Peppers. [Many different varieties of peppers; paprika from dried fruit of one variety.] C. baccatum South American Peppers Known as "Ajis." C. chinense Habanero Peppers [Very hot!] C. frutescens Tabasco Peppers C. pubescens South American "Rocotos" and Mexican "Manzanos." Datura stramonium Jimsonweed [Source of drug stramonium from leaves and flowering tops; contains the alkaloids hyoscyamine, scopolamine and atropine; Indians used liquid from crushed roots of D. stramonium, D. wrightii and D. meteloides for hallucinogenic effect during puberty ritual; drug is very poisonous and is dangerous.] Duboisia hopwoodii Pituri [Alkaloid scopolamine from leaves.] Hyoscyamus niger Black Henbane [Alkaloid hyoscyamine from leaves.] Lycopersicon esculentum Tomato Physalis ixocarpa Tomatillo P. peruviana Cape Gooseberry or Poha Nicotiana tabacum Tobacco Solanum melongena Eggplant [Numerous cultivars and the almagro eggplant landrace.] S. tuberosum Potato [Edible tubers; average baked tuber about 100 kilocalories, unless topped with mounds of butter and sour cream.] S. quitoense Naranjilla [A large perennial herb of the Andes with orange, tomatolike fruits.] Note: Black Pepper is from dried unripe fruit (berry) of Piper nigrum, a member of the family Piperaceae. See Article About Plant Alkaloids See Article About Chile Peppers See Tomato, Tomatillo & Eggplant Almagro Eggplant From Central Spain Cape Gooseberry (Physalis peruviana) Fascinating Story Of The Irish Potato 109. Sterculiaceae: Sterculia Family Back To Alphabet Table Cola nitida & Cola acuminata Cola-Nut [Seeds used in soft drinks & contain alkaloid caffeine.] Theobroma cacao Cacao [Seeds contain alkaloid theobromine and are source of chocolate; sweet chocolate has sugar and milk added.] Sterculia urens Gum Karaya or Sterculia Gum [Native to rocky hills and plateaus of India, the sap of this tree is the source of a valuable water-soluble gum that forms a strong adhesive gel when mixed with a small amount of water; because of its resistance to bacterial and enzymatic breakdown, it has been used for dental adhesives and as a binder in bologna and other lunch meats; it is also used in salad dressings, cheese spreads, whipped toppings and hair setting gels. S. lychnophora Poontalai or Pang da Hai [Seeds imbibe water and expand into a gelatinous mass that is used to make a beverage in southeast Asia.] S. foetida Java Olive [Although the flowers have a putrid odor, the seeds are eaten raw, roasted or fried.] See The Gelatinous Seed Of Sterculia lychnophora See The Seed Called Java Olive or Indian Almond See The Remarkable Cauliflorous Cacao Fruit See The Distinctive Leaves Of The Cola-Nut Tree 110. Taxaceae: Yew Family Back To Alphabet Table Taxus brevifolia Pacific Yew [Bark and needles are the source of taxol, a valuable drug for the tratment of ovarian and breat cancers.] See Pacific Yew Foliage And Seeds 111. Taxodiaceae: Taxodium Family Back To Alphabet Table Sequoia sempervirens Coast Redwood [Important lumber tree because of decay resistant wood; tallest tree species on earth, rivaled in height by the giant Eucalyptus regnans of Australia.] Sequoiadendron gigantum Giant Sequoia [Most massive living thing on earth, 36 ft. in diameter and over 1200 tons; mostly protected in several California National Parks such as Yosemite, Sequoia and King's Canyon.] Taxodium distichum Bald Cypress [Deciduous conifer of swamps with peculiar knees or pneumatophores; wood resistant to decay.] See WAYNE'S WORD Botanical Record-Breakers See Article About The Taxodium Family (Taxodiaceae) Ternstroemiaceae: Tea Family See Theaceae 112. Theaceae: Tea Family (Ternstroemiaceae) Back To Alphabet Table Camellia sinensis Tea [Leaves are source of the many varieties of green & black teas.] The grade of tea depends on the age of the leaves. In "golden tips" the youngest bud only is used; in "orange pekoe" the smallest leaf; in "pekoe" the second leaf; in "pekoe souchong" the third leaf; in "souchong" the fourth leaf; and in "congou" the fifth and largest leaf to be gathered. In green tea the leaves are dried and appear dull green; in black tea the leaves are fermented and then dried; "oolong tea" is only partially fermented and is intermediate between black and green. The various pekoes, souchongs, and congous are black teas, while gunpowder and hyson are the most important grades of green tea. See tea plant leaves & flower, and the closely related Camellia. 113. Tiliaceae: Basswood Family Back To Alphabet Table Corchorus capsularis and C. olitorius Jute [Valuable stem fibers woven into burlap, sackcloth and tough twines.] Tilia americana American Basswood or Linden [In Palomar College Arboretum.] T. cordata European Linden Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle 114. Trapaceae: Water-Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Trapa bicornis Water Caltrop or "Ling Chio" [Asian water plant with strange woody fruit resembling the head of a bull; starchy seed inside fruits in cooked and eaten.] T. natans Water Caltrop [Another species of water caltrop with 4-pronged woody fruit.] See Noteworthy Plants Article About Water Caltrop 115. Tuberaceae (and Terfeziaceae): Truffle Families Back To Alphabet Table Tuber melanosporum Black Truffle T. magnatum White Truffle T. gibbosum Oregon White Truffle Of all the edible fungi, truffles (Tuber spp.) are perhaps the most fascinating. They are truly the ne plus ultra of mushroom cuisine. Truffles are the fruiting bodies (ascocarps) of mycorrhizal ascomycetous fungi. Unlike other common forest mushrooms, truffles are subterranean and resemble small pebbles or clods of dirt beneath the soil. Truffles emit the odor of certain mammalian steroids and are irresistible to some mammals, including female pigs. This particular steroid is found in the saliva and breathe of male pigs (boars) and explains the natural lust and talent sows have for truffle hunting. Pigs and dogs can detect truffles from as far away as 50 yards, and there is even a case of a dog jumping over a hedge and running across a field to find a choice truffle under a beech tree 100 yards away. Since the fabled truffles of France and Italy retail for more than $500 a pound, a good swine or canine truffle sniffer is a valuable asset. Read About Truffles In Fungus Article See Some Dried Oregon White Truffles Umbelliferae: Carrot Family See Apiaceae 116. Urticaceae: Nettle Family Back To Alphabet Table Boehmeria nivea Ramie [Strong fibers from stems (stronger than cotton and flax); made into lustrous China grass cloth.] Go To Wood/Plant Fiber Crossword Puzzle See Article About Plant Textile Fibers 117. Verbenaceae: Verbena Family Back To Alphabet Table Tectona grandis Teak [Wood is hard and does not warp, split, or crack, and is very resistant to termites and decay; elephants are often used in lumbering operations.] 118. Vitaceae: Grape Family Back To Alphabet Table Vitis labrusca North American Grape [Many varieties, including the Concord grape.] Vitis vinifera European Wine Grape [Many varieties of wine grapes and edible table grapes.] There are many varieties of grapes. In the European tightskins, which are used for wines, the skin does not separate readily from the pulp. Grapes are one of the oldest cultivated plants. They have been grown in Egypt for 6,000 years. They were highly developed by Greeks and Romans. Fermentation is brought about through the action of wild yeasts which are present on the skins of the fruit (whitish powder). The maximum alcoholic content of natural wines is about 12 to 16% (24 to 32 proof). Higher alcoholic content will kill the yeast cells. Brandy is made from distilled wines and has a much higher alcoholic content (up to 140 proof!). Red wines are made from grapes with colored skins (with anthocyanin), while white wines are made from white grapes (or red grapes with skins removed). In dry wines the sugar is almost completely fermented. In sweet wines fermentation is stopped before all the sugar is converted. The North American grapes are larger and more hardy than the European. The fruit is round with a more watery flesh and a thin skin that slips off very easily. They are used for eating and for making grape juice (concord grapes), jams, and jellies. Of course, grapes are also the source of raisins. See 'Thompson Seedless' & 'Red Seedless' Grapes No Families With W Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With X Included Here Back To Alphabet Table No Families With Y Included Here Back To Alphabet Table 119. Zingiberaceae: Ginger Family Back To Alphabet Table Zingiber officinale Ginger [Rhizome is the source of an important spice (oleoresin) used in ginger ale, ginger beer, and gingerbread.] Curcuma domestica Turmeric [Curcuma longa also listed for turmeric; dried, ground rhizome used in curry powder and as a yellow dye.] Elettaria cardamomum Cardamom [A highly aromatic spice derived from the seeds and dried fruits; used in curry powder, seasoning for sausages, incenses, perfumes and medicines.] See A Turmeric Hybrid In Full Bloom See A Ginger Rhizome: A Valuable Spice 120. Zygophyllaceae: Caltrop Family Back To Alphabet Table Guaicum officinale Ligum Vitae [One of the world's hardest ironwoods (specific gravity of 1.37); used for bushing blocks on propeller shafts of steamships; also source of gum guaiac, resin providing the natural, self-lubrication qualities of the wood; resin used medically to test for presence of hidden blood; peroxidase enzymes in blood cells oxidize chemicals in resin, resulting in a blue-green color change.] Tribulus terrestris Puncture Vine [Old World sprawling weed that is responsible for many punctured bicycle tires in the American southwest.] Larrea tridentata Creosote Bush [Dominant shrub of Colorado Desert of southwestern U.S. and Mexico.] One of the most common questions asked by my students on desert field trips is whether creosote comes from the creosote bush. The answer is an unequivocal no. The commercial source of creosote is derived from the distillation of coal tar. It is produced by high temperature carbonization of bituminous coal. Wood creosote is obtained from the distillation of wood tar from several woods of the eastern United States. Wood creosote is a mixture of phenolic compounds that are used medicinally as an antiseptic and expectorant. Under no circumstances should coal tar creosote be taken internally. Although creosote bush does not grow in the chaparral plant community of California, the dried leaves of this shrub are the source of "chaparral tea," a controversial herbal remedy with antitumor properties. The leaves contain a powerful antioxidant that apparently destroys tumor cells; however, there are reported cases of liver toxicity, including toxic hepatitis and jaundice. See The Resinous Leaves Of Creosote Bush Gum Guaiac & Other Uses For Lignum Vitae ______________________________________________________________ Economic Botany References 1. Armstrong, W.P. 1998. "The Wild and Wonderful Family of Gourds." Pacific Horticulture 59 (4): 11-18. 2. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Logwood: The Tree That Spawned A Nation." Pacific Horticulture 53 (1): 38-43 3. Armstrong, W.P. 1992. "Natural Dyes." Ornament 15 (4): 70-73 + 92-95. 4. Armstrong, W.P. 1982. "Not Beavers, Stars or Sons of Jupiter." Environment Southwest No. 496: 4-7. 5. Bailey, L.H. and E.Z. Bailey. 1976. Hortus Third. Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., New York. 6. Balick, M.J. and P.A. Cox. 1996. Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. Scientific American Library, New York. 7. Bianchini, F. and F. Corbetta. 1976. The Complete Book of Fruits and Vegetables. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. 8. Bold, H.C. and M.J. Wynne. 1985. Introduction To The Algae (2nd Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 9. Boswell, V.R. 1949. "Our Vegetable Travelers." The National Geographic Magazine Vol. XCVI (2): 145-217. 10. Brock, T.D. and M.T. Madigan. 1988. Biology of Microorganisms (Fifth Edition). Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 11. Chrispeels, M.J. and D. Sadava. 1977. Plants, Food, and People. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 12. Facciola, S. 1990. Cornucopia: A Source Book of Edible Plants. Kampong Publications, Vista, California. 13. Fong, C.H. and Y. Hoi-Sen. 1980. Malaysian Fruits in Color. Tropical Press SDH. BHD. 56-1&2 Jalan Maarof, 59100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysaia. 14. Heiser, C.B., Jr. 1973. Seed to Civilization: The Story of Man's Food. W.H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco. 15. Hill, A.F. Economic Botany. 1952. McGraw-Hill, New York. 16. Klein, R.M. 1979. The Green World: An Introduction to Plants and People. Harper and Row, Publishers, New York. 17. Langenheim, J.H. and K.V. Thimann. 1982. Plant Biology and its Relation to Human Affairs. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 18. Lewington, A. 1990. Plants For People. Oxford University Press, New York. 19. Lewis, W.H. and M.P.F. Elvin-Lewis. 1977. Medical Botany: Plants Affecting Man's Health. John Wiley & Sons, New York. 20. Levetin, E. and K. McMahon. 1996. Plants and Society. Wm. C. Brown, Publishers, Dubuque, Iowa. 21. Read, B.E. and W. Wagner. 1940. Shanghai Vegetables. The China Journal Publishing Co., Ltd. 22. Richardson, W.N. and T. Stubbs. 1978. Plants, Agriculture and Human Society. W.A. Benjamin, Inc., Reading Massachusetts. 23. Robinson, T. 1964. The Organic Constituents of Higher Plants: Their Chemistry and Interrelationships. Burgess Publishing Co., Minneapolis, Minn. 24. Schery, R.W. 1972. Plants For Man. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. 25. Simpson, B.B. and M.C. Ogorzaly. 1995. Economic Botany: Plants in Our World. Second Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. 26. Und, I. and P. Schoenfelder. 2004. Das Neue Handbuch der Heilpflanzen. Kosmos Verlag, Germany. 27. Van Aken, N. and J. Harrisson. 1995. The Great Exotic Fruit Book. Ten Speed Press, Berkeley, California. 28. Weiss, E.A. 1971. Castor, Sesame and Safflower. Barnes & Noble, New York. 29. Windholz, M., S. Budavari, R.F.Blumetti, and E. S. Otterbein (Editors). 1983. The Merck Index: An Encyclopedia of Chemicals, Drugs, and Biologicals. Merck & Co., Inc., Rahway, New Jersey. + Link To Purdue University Alphabetical Crop Index [top3.gif] [hipoicon.gif] List Of Economically Important Families __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To WAYNE'S WORD Home Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Return To NOTEWORTHY PLANTS Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To Biology GEE WHIZ TRIVIA Page __________________________________________________________________ [hipoicon.gif] Go To The LEMNACEAE ON-LINE Page All text material & images on these pages copyright (c) W.P. Armstrong #Healthy Girl's Kitchen - Atom Healthy Girl's Kitchen - RSS skip to main | skip to sidebar Healthy Girl's Kitchen [about1.png] [healthyrecipes1.png] [shophealthy1.png] [awesomeproducts1.png] [greatstrategies1.png] [endemotional1.png] Pages quote Your real work on this planet is not your weight or your fat. The fabric of your emotional journey is not about deprivation and overeating. It is about love and fear and manifesting the magnificent person you already are. It is time to pay attention to your real life. Stop distracting yourself from your emotional life. Find out what you are feeling and feel it. It is then that you can find the way to who you really are. I promise you, it is not just fat. -Brooke Castillo, If I am So Smart, Why Can't I Lose Weight? subscribe [subscribe_tag.png] [rss-pencil48.png] [twitter-pencil48.png] [facebook-pencil48.png] Enter your email address: ____________________ Subscribe Delivered by FeedBurner TIP: YOU MUST CONFIRM E-MAIL SUBSCRIPTION. CHECK YOUR E-MAIL AFTER SUBSCRIBING. CHECK YOUR SPAM--THE E-MAIL MAY BE THERE! contact me healthygirlskitchen@gmail.com Before! [before.png] Before! This is me before becoming Plant Strong! Total cholesterol: 231 After! [after.png] After! This is me after happily going Plant Strong for over two years. Total cholesterol: 147 Total weight loss: 40 pounds zazzle Volumetric Eating Remember caloric density when you are trying to lose weight. Vegetables have 100 calories per pound, fruit 300 calories per pound, whole grains 500 calories per pound, beans 600 calories per pound, animal meat, 1000 calories per pound, refined carbs (white flour stuff) 1400 calories per pound, junk food, 2300 calories per pound, nuts/seeds, 2800 calories per pound, oil 4000 calories per pound. Staying on the lower end of the caloric density scale is key to weight loss. ~Natala Constantine [disclaimer.png] Disclaimer Please keep in mind that I am not a nutritionist or doctor. I recommend checking with your doctor before making any changes to your diet. Most of the information on this blog is based upon my own personal experience and research. All photographs and content are copyright Healthy Girl's Kitchen. Please contact me for permission to use photographs and content. Foodgawker Gallery my foodgawker gallery Bliss Amazon stuff i love [stuff_tag.png] * Luscious Verde Cards * More from Luscious Verde * Peer Trainer * Cool Car Magnets * Eat to Live * The Engine 2 Diet * Prevent and Reverse Heart Disease * The Beck Diet Solution * The Best Kitchen Tool You'll Ever Find--The VitaMix Blender * You Are What You Eat on BBC America * Volumetrics * Cleveland Yoga * Trader Joe's * Penzey's Spices * Whole Foods Top 50 Blog 2 Learn why we're not just a Health Coach Training Program Food on the Table Grocery List Privacy Policy * HGK Privacy Policy Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School The envelope please. And the Academy Award for Most Useful Film goes to . . . Jeff Novick's Fast Food Shopping School! [fast+food+shopping+school.jpg] Yes, it's THAT good. But what exactly is Fast Food Shopping School? Well, it's the third video in Jeff Novick's series called, you guessed it, Fast Food. [Fast+Food+Jeff+Novick+Videos+015+edited.jpg] That's the same series which freed me from the shackles in my brain that had me thinking that good, healthy, tasty food just "took a long time to make." Sometimes it does, but it doesn't always have to. You can read about that here, here and here. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/video-review-and-giveaway-jeff-novicks.html&layou t=standard&show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorschem e=light Pin It Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps [Moroccan+Burger+Wrap+021+edited+with+text.jpg] I'm gearing up this week to post a review of Jeff's Novick's latest video, "Fast Food Shopping School." I'm so excited to tell you about it, complete with a giveaway and promotions for those who don't win. Jeff, a nutritionist who also went to cooking school, is quickly becoming my biggest plant-based diet hero. I have learned so much from him and we've never met! He has really changed not only the amount of time I spend in the kitchen, but also my level of confidence. A few days ago on Facebook I saw Jeff posting a recipe for a new "Fast Food" burger of his with a Moroccan flair. I totally dig any veg'n Middle Eastern type food (I really have never met an ethnic food that I did not at least like), so I excitedly scribbled down the instructions. I prepared them a few days later and we have been enjoying them ever since (they keep well in the refrigerator). Not my favorite Fast Food burger of his, but certainly good. Then inspiration struck. I had some Roasted Red Pepper Hummus and grape tomatoes hanging around that I wanted to use up. Added to fresh sprouted grain tortillas and salad greens, and, well, the rest is history! The acidy pop from the warm tomatoes, the little bit of sweetness from the currants and the sweet potatoes, the creaminess from the hummus; it all just works wonders together. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/moroccan-veggie-burger-wraps.html&layout=standard &show_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Designated Flatulence Area Is anyone watching the TV series "Portlandia?" A while back I wrote a blog posting called "Fart or Be Fat" I was somewhat new on a plant based diet and passing a lot of gas on most days. Fast forward two years and I have to think that I'm no gassier than I was pre-plant based eating, in fact, I might even be less gassy. Regardless of my personal gassy past, I know that for most people starting out on a plant based diet, excessive gas can cause great alarm. Enough to want to make some people throw in the towel. Read more >> [wendy_sig2.png] IFRAME: http://www.facebook.com/plugins/like.php?href=http://healthygirlskitche n.blogspot.fr/2013/01/designated-flatulence-area.html&layout=standard&s how_faces=false&width=100&action=like&font=arial&colorscheme=light Pin It Older Posts Home Pinterest Follow Me on Pinterest Eat to Live [eatToLive.jpg] [show?id=A2JoAoaaUqw&bids=254134.7254325&type=2&subid=0] Dr. Fuhrman Dr. Fuhrman search this blog [search.png] Loading... [facebook.png] Become a Fan on FB bliss ad Blog Archive [archives_tag.png] * v 2013 (6) + v January (6) o Video Review and Giveaway: Jeff Novick's Fast Food... o Moroccan Veggie Burger Wraps o Designated Flatulence Area o Utopea Giveway Winner Announced and New Recipe (Fi... o One Grain More? One Laugh More! And How to Replace... o New Year, New Resolutions? 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Site + UW Fast Plants + UW Nematode Diagnostic Lab + UW Vegetable Pathology + Wisconsin Seed Potato Cert. Prog. * Seminars + Overview + Fridays @ 4 + Spring 2013 Seminars * Newsletters + The Pathogen * Contact Us Within This Section... * Overview * Visions, Values, and Goals * History * Facilities * Faculty and Staff * Plant Pathology Library * Research * News * Donations Search Search Plant Pathology Website: _______________ Search Vision, Values, and Goals Our Vision To be a World leader in research, teaching, and extension involving plant health, while serving the changing needs of society, the environment, and the University. Our Shared Values Our collective success depends upon creating and maintaining a supportive and collegial environment. Our effectiveness as a Department depends on accepting and utilizing diversity in work style, expertise, skills, personality, and outlook. Our ability to solve multifaceted problems requires contributions from, and mutual respect among, our research, teaching, and extension teams. Our ability to establish and to preserve excellence at the forefront of our changing field depends on innovation, creativity, risk-taking, and growth. Our Shared Goals Our research goal is to understand microbes, plants, and their interactions in the environment in order to provide effective approaches by which plant diseases can be controlled and beneficial interactions can be maximized. Our instructional goals are to offer superior education in plant pathology and plant-microbe interactions and to broaden the perspectives of plant biology in undergraduate, graduate, and public education. Our extension and outreach goals are to integrate and extend knowledge and provide services that foster an understanding of plant diseases and that enhance plant health, food safety, a profitable and sustainable agriculture, and stewardship of the environment. UW logo Department of Plant Pathology, College of Agricultural and Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison 1630 Linden Dr., Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1598 608.262.1410 (tel) or 608.263.2626 (fax) Copyright (c) 2012 Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System Feedback, questions, or accessibility issues: Russell Labs Computing Login Help The University of Texas at Austin Plant Biology Graduate Program Prospective Students Current Students Faculty Events Facilities Directory Contact Us Ecology Cell & Molecular Biology Phycology Physiology Systematics & Evolution __________________________________________________________________ School of Biological Sciences ____________________ Search Spotlight Taylor Quedensley Taylor Quedensley Ling Zhu Ling Zhu Welcome The Graduate Program in Plant Biology at The University of Texas at Austin has earned an international reputation for excellence in research and teaching in the plant sciences. The Plant Biology Program is a consortium of faculty from several sections of the School of Biological Sciences whose research is in one of six areas specializing in plants. These faculty supervise graduate students whose M.A. and Ph.D. degrees are based on empirical research focused on plants. The Graduate Program in Plant Biology supports graduate students with grants and assistantships in addition to the resources generally available in the Sections of the School of Biological Sciences. If you are a prospective student, you'll find information here ranging from admission requirements, research areas, faculty profiles and an overview of the extensive research facilities that The University of Texas at Austin has to offer. Plant Biology images. (Photo credit: Dr. Z. Jeffrey Chen/University of Texas at Austin; Shutterstock images) Site map | UT Austin | Copyright | Privacy | Accessibility @ 2006 School of Biological Sciences College of Natural Sciences, The University of Texas at Austin counter Northwestern University // Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Search site...______ Go Program in Plant Biology and Conservation * Home * About + Testimonials * Graduate + PhD Program + MS Program + Grants + Career and Professional Development + TGS Calendar * Undergraduate + Plant Biology Concentration + Combined Bachelor's/Master's Degree + Research Opportunities + Courses * People + Faculty + Students + Staff * Alumni + Research of Past Graduates + Alumni Communication * Research + Research Facilities + Research Areas * News and Events + Chicago Botanic Garden Events + Past Events + Recent Awards and Honors + News Archive + Publications Plant Biology Conservation The Program in Plant Biology and Conservation is a collaboration between Northwestern University and the Chicago Botanic Garden. The program offers PhD and MS degrees, as well as courses and research opportunities for undergraduates. Explore our site to learn more. In the Field Briscoe in the field Students in our program conduct research in both the field and the laboratory. Here Laura Briscoe is conducting research on bryophytes. News and Events Louise Egerton-Warburton, PhD has been awarded a booster grant of $30,000 from the Initiative for Sustainability and Energy at Northwestern (ISEN) for her research Metagenomic Discovery of Novel Lignin Degrading Fungi for Biofuel Production. Matthew Rhodes was awarded a Sigma Xi Grant-in-Aid of Research for $500 to support his Master's research focusing on how temporal variation in pollinator community structure influences reproductive dynamics and pollen movement in Oenothera harringtonii, an evening primrose endemic to southeastern Colorado, USA. His Master's advisor is Krissa Skogen. Byron Tsang defended his MS thesis "Environmental Factors Affecting Woodland Legume Restoration," on Tuesday, 27 November 2012 at 1:00 pm in the Plant Science Center Seminar Room at the Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe. Rebecca Tonietto, a third year PhD student has been awarded a Presidential Fellowship from Northwestern University's Graduate School for her research on determining the effects of tall grass prairie restoration on native bee communities. Her research supervisor is Dr. Dan Larkin. The fellowships are awarded to a very limited number of graduate students each year. PBC group on LinkedIn Join our LinkedIn Group About Our Partner Chicago Botanic Garden Explore the research and opportunities at the Plant Science Center at the Chicago Botanic Garden. Photo Gallery Program in Plant Biology and Conservation 2205 Tech Drive, O.T. Hogan Hall, Room 2-144, Evanston, IL 60208 USA Phone: voice+1-847-491-4031 Fax: fax+1-847-467-0525 E-mail: n-zerega@northwestern.edu Northwestern University | Judd A. and Marjorie Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences Disclaimer and Policy Statements | Northwestern Calendar (c) 2012 Northwestern University Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences January 17, 2013 WHAT IS MYMET? Watch a video to find out. We're inviting you to share your favorite works of art using MyMet. See What's Your Met? for more information. Register Already have a mymet account? Sign in Email Address: ____________________ Forgotten your details? Password: ____________________ [ ] Stay logged in Sign In The Metropolitan Museum of Art Logo The Metropolitan Museum of Art The Metropolitan Museum of Art Go to Navigation Go to Content Go to Search Search this web site ____________________ submit search * Visit + Hours and Admission + Plan Your Visit + Museum Map + Suggested Itineraries + Visit The Cloisters + Accessibility + Contact Information * Exhibitions + Current Exhibitions + Upcoming Exhibitions + Past Exhibitions * Collections + Browse Highlights + New Installations + Recent Acquisitions + Galleries + Search the Collections + Connections + 82nd & Fifth + Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History * Events + Find Events + Programs + Travel with the Met * Learn + For Kids + For Teens + For Adults + For College Students + For Educators + For Visitors with Disabilities * Research + Libraries and Study Centers + MetPublications + Internships and Fellowships + Archaeological Fieldwork + Conservation and Scientific Research + Curatorial Research + Image Resources + Provenance Research Project * Give and Join + Donate + Membership + Planned Giving + Benefit Parties + Corporate Support + Curatorial Friends Groups + Gifts in Honor or Memory * About the Museum + Now at the Met + The Met Around the World + Museum Mission Statement + History of the Museum + Museum Departments + Entertaining at the Met + Career and Volunteer Opportunities + Annual Reports + Collections Management Policy + Contact Information + Press Room * Shop Sign up for emails Email address_______ Sign up for emails Become a member MyMet Sign in / Register * Home > * Exhibitions > * Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings Shopping cart: Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings The exhibition is made possible by the Gail and Parker Gilbert Fund and the Jane and Robert Carroll Fund. Featured Media * Videos (9) [EMBED] Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. Please enable flash to view this media. Download the flash player. * Share * * Add to MyMet Submit Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Shield (Grere’o [?]) from the Solomon Islands Program information On the occasion of the exhibition Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings (on view June 5–September 3, 2012), the artist recorded his thoughts about various works of art in the Met's collection. Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Bird in Space, by Constantin Brancusi (00:01:26) 734 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on The Gulf of Marseilles Seen from L'Estaque, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:57) 1156 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Antoine Dominique Sauveur Aubert, (born 1817), the Artist's Uncle, by Paul Cézanne (00:00:47) 614 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Tlingit Ceremonial Copper (00:01:25) 200 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on the Cypriot Copper Ingot (00:01:19) 213 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on Water Lilies, by Claude Monet (00:01:17) 684 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on his painting Blue Panel (00:01:47) 453 views Media image Artists' Perspectives: Ellsworth Kelly on L'Arlésienne: Madame Joseph-Michel Ginoux (Marie Julien, 1848–1911), by Vincent van Gogh (00:01:23) 578 views Ellsworth Kelly Plant Drawings June 5–September 3, 2012 Accompanied by a catalogue and an Audio Guide One of the foremost artists of our day, Ellsworth Kelly (American, born 1923) may be best known for his rigorous abstract painting, but he has made figurative drawings throughout his career, creating an extraordinary body of work that now spans six decades. There has never been a major museum exhibition dedicated exclusively to the plant drawings. The selection of approximately eighty drawings begins in 1948 during Kelly's early sojourn in Paris and continues throughout his travels to his most recent work made in upstate New York. Related Content A free iTunes app was created in conjunction with two recent Ellsworth Kelly exhibitions in Munich. Met Media Met Media Met Kids Met Kids Met Store Met Store * Accessibility * Site Index * Terms and Conditions * Privacy Policy * Acknowledgments * Press © 2000–2012 The Metropolitan Museum of Art. All rights reserved. GA, the Society for Medicinal Plant and Natural Product Research (“Gesellschaft für Arzneipflanzen- und Naturstoff-Forschung”), was founded in 1953 in Bad Camberg, Germany, for the purpose of promotion and dissemination of medicinal plant research. Over the years GA has developed into an international scientific society with at present ca. 1400 members from 82 countries. The scientific interests of GA cover nowadays all aspects of medicinally used natural products like agricultural science, biology, chemistry, pharmacy, pharmacognosy, pharmacology and medicine. Since 1953 Planta Medica is the official journal of the society. Its impact factor is 2.037 (in 2009). GA organizes every year a large international congress on medicinal plant research in major European cities, and every 5 years joint meetings with related European and North American scientific societies. Besides, GA is setting up and supporting smaller symposia and workshops on specific topics related to natural product research. GA has established 5 permanent committees which elaborate and disseminate information on the following topics: · Biological and Pharmacological Activities of Natural Compounds · Breeding and Cultivation of Medicinal Plants · Manufacturing and Quality Control of Herbal Medicinal Products · Regulatory Affairs on Herbal Medicinal Products · Young Researchers Workshops Reasons for a Membership · To promote science and the dissemination of medicinal plant research. · To get informed on all activities of GA in first priority. · To join a group of people interested in the same field. · To get financial support for attending the scientific annual congress of GA. · To receive a financial discount in many areas related to GA. · To find the abstract book of the annual GA congress published in the members’ area of our homepage or to receive a free print copy on request in case you could not attend. · To subscribe to the journal Planta Medica at reduced subscription rates. · To become active in the planning of the future of GA. 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Bloomberg Kathy Freston Kathy Freston Bestselling Author, "Veganist: Lose Weight, Get Healthy, Change the World" GET UPDATES FROM Kathy Freston Like [DEL: :DEL] 1k A Cure For Cancer? Eating A Plant-Based Diet Posted: 09/24/09 09:34 AM ET React [follow-arrow.png] Amazing Inspiring Funny Scary Hot Crazy Important Weird Follow [follow-arrow.png] Cancer , Cancer Cure , Health , Plant-Based Diet , Kathy Freston , Animal Protein , Carcinogens , Casein , Cure For Cancer , Nurtition , Preventative Medicine , T. Colin Campbell , Healthy Living News share this story Get Healthy Living Alerts ____________________ Sign Up Submit this story digg reddit stumble I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteemed doctors are saying is just beginning to be understood and accepted, perhaps because what they are saying does not conveniently fit in with or support the multi-billion dollar food industries that profit from our "not knowing". One thing is for sure: we are getting sicker and more obese than our health care system can handle, and the conventional methods of dealing with disease often have harmful side effects and are ineffective for some patients. As it is now, one out of every two of us will get cancer or heart disease and die from it - an ugly and painful death as anyone who has witnessed it can attest. And starting in the year 2000, one out of every three children who are born after that year will develop diabetes--a disease that for most sufferers (those with Type 2 diabetes) is largely preventable with lifestyle changes. This is a rapidly emerging crisis, the seriousness of which I'm not sure we have yet recognized. The good news is, the means to prevent and heal disease seems to be right in front of us; it's in our food. Quite frankly, our food choices can either kill us - which mounting studies say that they are, or they can lift us right out of the disease process and into soaring health. In the next few months, I will share a series of interviews I've conducted with the preeminent doctors and nutritional researchers in the fields of their respective expertise. And here it is straight out: they are all saying the same thing in different ways and through multiple and varying studies: animal protein seems to greatly contribute to diseases of nearly every type; and a plant-based diet is not only good for our health, but it's also curative of the very serious diseases we face . Cancer On the subject of cancer, I've asked Dr. T. Colin Campbell, Professor Emeritus of Cornell University and author of the groundbreaking The China Study to explain how cancer happens and what we can do to prevent and reverse it. Dr. Campbell's work is regarded by many as the definitive epidemiological examination of the relationship between diet and disease. He has received more than 70 grant years of peer-reviewed research funding, much of which was funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health (NIH), and he has authored more than 300 research papers. He grew up on a dairy farm believing in the great health value of animal protein in the American diet and set out in his career to investigate how to produce more and better animal protein. Troublesome to his preconceived hypothesis of the goodness of dairy, Dr. Campbell kept running up against results that consistently proved an emerging and comprehensive truth: that animal protein is disastrous to human health. Through a variety of experimental study designs, epidemiological evidence, along with observation of real life conditions which had rational biological explanation, Dr. Campbell has made a direct and powerful correlation between cancer (and other diseases and illnesses) and animal protein. Following is a conversation I had with him so that I could better understand the association. KF: What happens in the body when cancer develops? What is the actual process? TCC: Cancer generally develops over a long period of time, divided into 3 stages, initiation, promotion and progression. Initiation occurs when chemicals or other agents attack the genes of normal cells to produce genetically modified cells capable of eventually causing cancer. The body generally repairs most such damage but if the cell reproduces itself before it is repaired, its new (daughter) cell retains this genetic damage. This process may occur within minutes and, to some extent, is thought to be occurring most of the time in most of our tissues. Promotion occurs when the initiated cells continue to replicate themselves and grow into cell masses that eventually will be diagnosed. This is a long growth phase occurring over months or years and is known to be reversible. Progression occurs when the growing cancer masses invade neighboring tissues and/or break away from the tissue of origin (metastasis) and travel to distant tissues when they are capable of growing independently at which point they are considered to be malignant. KF: Why do some people get cancer, and other don't? What percentage is genetic, and what percentage has to do with diet? TCC: Although the initiated cells are not considered to be reversible, the cells growing through the promotion stage are usually considered to be reversible, a very exciting concept. This is the stage that especially responds to nutritional factors. For example, the nutrients from animal based foods, especially the protein, promote the development of the cancer whereas the nutrients from plant-based foods, especially the antioxidants, reverse the promotion stage. This is a very promising observation because cancer proceeds forward or backward as a function of the balance of promoting and anti-promoting factors found in the diet, thus consuming anti-promoting plant-based foods tend to keep the cancer from going forward, perhaps even reversing the promotion. The difference between individuals is almost entirely related to their diet and lifestyle practices. Although all cancer and other diseases begin with genes, this is not the reason whether or not the disease actually appears. If people do the right thing during the promotion stage, perhaps even during the progression stage, cancer will not appear and if it does, might even be resolved. Most estimates suggest that not more than 2-3 percent of cancers are due entirely to genes; almost all the rest is due to diet and lifestyle factors. Consuming plant based foods offers the best hope of avoiding cancer, perhaps even reversing cancer once it is diagnosed. Believing that cancer is attributed to genes is a fatalistic idea but believing that cancer can be controlled by nutrition is a far more hopeful idea. KF: You said that initially something attacks the genes, chemicals or other agents; like what? TCC: Cancer, like every other biological event--good or bad--begins with genes. In the case of cancer, gene(s) that give rise to cancer either may be present when we are born or, during our lifetimes, normal genes may be converted into cancer genes by certain highly reactive chemicals (i.e., carcinogens). Consider 'cancer genes' as seeds that grow into tumor masses only if they are 'fed'. The 'feeding' comes from wrongful nutrition. It's like growing a lawn. We plant seeds but they don't grow into grass (or weeds) unless they are provided water, sunlight and nutrients. So it is with cancer. In reality, we are planting seeds all of our lifetime although some may be present at birth, not only for cancer but also for other events as well. But this mostly does not matter unless we 'nourish' their growth. The chemicals that create these cancer genes are called 'carcinogens'. Most carcinogens of years past have been those that attack normal genes to give cancer genes. These are initiating carcinogens, or initiators. But more recently, carcinogens also may be those that promote cancer growth. They are promoting carcinogens, or promoters. Our work showed that casein is the most relevant cancer promoter ever discovered. Aside from chemicals initiating or promoting cancer, other agents such as cosmic rays (energetic particles) from the sun or from the outer reaches of space may impact our genes to cause them to change (i.e., mutate) so that they could give rise to cancer 'seeds'. The most important point to consider is that we cannot do much about preventing initiation but we can do a lot about preventing promotion. The initiating idea is fatalistic and outside of our control but the promotion idea is hopeful because we can change our exposure to promoting agents and reverse the cancer process, thus is within our control. KF: What exactly is so bad about animal protein? TCC: I don't choose the word "exactly" because it suggests something very specific. Rather, casein causes a broad spectrum of adverse effects. Among other fundamental effects, it makes the body more acidic, alters the mix of hormones and modifies important enzyme activities, each of which can cause a broad array of more specific effects. One of these effects is its ability to promote cancer growth (by operating on key enzyme systems, by increasing hormone growth factors and by modifying the tissue acidity). Another is its ability to increase blood cholesterol (by modifying enzyme activities) and to enhance atherogenesis, which is the early stage of cardiovascular disease. And finally, although these are casein-specific effects, it should be noted that other animal-based proteins are likely to have the same effect as casein. KF: Ok, so I am clear that it's wise to avoid casein, which is intrinsic in dairy (milk and cheese), but how is other animal protein, such as chicken, steak, or pork, implicated in the cause and growth of cancer? TCC: I would first say that casein is not just "intrinsic" but IS THE MAIN PROTEIN OF COW MILK, REPRESENTING ABOUT 87% OF THE MILK PROTEIN. The biochemical systems which underlie the adverse effects of casein are also common to other animal-based proteins. Also, the amino acid composition of casein, which is the characteristic primarily responsible for its property, is similar to most other animal-based proteins. They all have what we call high 'biological value', in comparison, for example, with plant-based proteins, which is why animal protein promotes cancer growth and plant protein doesn't. KF: Isn't anything in moderation ok, as long as we don't overdo it? TCC: I rather like the expression told by my friend, Caldwell Esselstyn, Jr., MD, the Cleveland Clinic surgeon who reversed heart disease and who says, "Moderation kills!" I prefer to go the whole way, not because we have fool-proof evidence showing that 100% is better than, say, 95% for every single person for every single condition but that it is easier to avoid straying off on an excursion that too often becomes a slippery slope back to our old ways. Moreover, going the whole way allows us to adapt to new unrealized tastes and to rid ourselves of some old addictions. And finally, moderation often means very different things for different people. KF: Are you saying that if one changes their diet from animal based protein to plant-based protein that the disease process of cancer can be halted and reversed? TCC: Yes, this is what our experimental research shows. I also have become aware of many anecdotal claims by people who have said that their switch to a plant-based diet stopped even reversed (cured?) their disease. One study on melanoma has been published in the peer-reviewed literature that shows convincing evidence that cancer progression is substantially halted with this diet. KF: How long does it take to see changes? TCC: It is not clear because carefully designed research in humans has not been done. However, we demonstrated and published findings showing that experimental progression of disease is at least suspended, even reversed, when tumors are clearly present. KF: Consider a person who has been eating poorly his whole life; is there still hope that a dietary change can make a big difference? Or is everything already in motion? TCC: Yes, a variety of evidence shows that cancers and non-cancers alike can be stopped even after consuming a poor diet earlier in life. This effect is equivalent to treatment, a very exciting concept. KF: This is sounding like it's a cure for cancer; is that the case? TCC: Yes. The problem in this area of medicine is that traditional doctors are so focused on the use of targeted therapies (chemo, surgery, radiation) that they refuse to even acknowledge the use of therapies like nutrition and are loathe to even want to do proper research in this area. So, in spite of the considerable evidence--theoretical and practical--to support a beneficial nutritional effect, every effort will be made to discredit it. It's a self-serving motive. KF: What else do you recommend one does to avoid, stop, or reverse cancer? TCC: A good diet, when coupled with other health promoting activities like exercise, adequate fresh air and sunlight, good water and sleep, will be more beneficial. The whole is greater than the sum of its parts. For help on how to lean into a plant based diet, check out my blog post here; and for recipes click here. For more information about diet and cancer, visit tcolincampbell.org. This Blogger's Books from Amazon indiebound The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss The Lean: A Revolutionary (and Simple!) 30-Day Plan for Healthy, Lasting Weight Loss by Kathy Freston * Health * chronic conditions * Diet * Cáncer I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... I have been working closely recently with a few extraordinary nutritional researchers, and I find that the information they have compiled is quite eye opening. Interestingly, what these highly esteem... 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[trans.gif] Potential AIDS Cure, Discovered By Australian Medical... [trans.gif] Gut Health Linked to Heart Disease and... [trans.gif] Brittle Nail Causes: Why Do My Nails... [display_comments_title.gif] * Comments * 485 * Pending Comments * 0 * View FAQ Comments are closed for this entry Community Notice: We've made some changes to our badge program, including the addition of our newest badge: Community Curator. View All Favorites Bloggers Recency | Popularity Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) CindyAustinInLA 1 Fans 04:04 PM on 11/06/2009 I’m a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this DVD that features Kathy Freston called “The Path of Wellness & Healing” at a conference and it’s the best resource i have EVER seen for anyone with breast cancer or their families. My husband was given SO MANY BOOKS and who has the time to read when you’re dealing with something like this? This DVD was a one-stop shop that walks you through the entire bc experience with celeb survivors like Sheryl Crow and Christina Applegate and the world’s greatest doctors like Deepak Chopra and Dean Ornish. You’ll learn, you’l be inspired, you’ll probably cry and you might even laugh! Check it out!!! http://breastcancerdvd.org. CindyAustinInLA: Iâm a breast cancer survivor and thriver. Just found this http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/CindyAustinInLA/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_34079828.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 01:46 AM on 11/07/2009 That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. Everyone should watch it. Then it gives you access to other related videos that you cannot find elsewhere. Here is a University of California video about cancer and vitamin D. It shows that the latest research demonstrates that vitamin D can greatly reduce cancer rates including breast cancer. If enough people watch this video, it can greatly reduce the cancer that exists. It shows that the amounts of vitamin D needed to greatly reduce your chance of getting cancer is much more than the amount needed to prevent rickets or bone problems. It also tells how to find out just how much you need. It also has side effect of lowering your chances of getting the flu. You can even get free vitamin D from sunlight. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TQ-qekFoi-o&feature=player_embedded# whizkid7: That 3 minute video has many famous people on it. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_34106139.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Jamsco 0 Fans 07:31 PM on 10/30/2009 I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has been shown to be healthier than starving yourself on plant leaves and flaxseeds. My dad was diagnosed with stage 1 colon cancer and did the Budwig Protocol without orthodox treatments and was dead in a year. I believe the war on cancer by the establishment is a joke, there are effective cancer treatments other than chemo and radiation, (Ronald Reagan was a good example). You should avoid sugars as well when diagnosed with cancer. I also believe many of these natural cure websites are ran by left-wing extremists with pro-animal, anti-corporation agendas(except when they make money of course). Ancient people, native tribes, eskimos were all fish and meat eaters(omnivores). According to the quacks you should only eat raw fruits and vegetables, nothing else! Meat and fish with fruits and vegetables is healthy with exercise. Increased chemicals in foods, water, meats, shampoos, ect i beleive are the real culprits in rising cancer rates. These alternative quacks make big money themselves with their water ionizers, supplements, ect. Be careful of these plant-based diet claims, some of these treatments have only 5% cure rates. Many alternative claims contradict each other if you study them. Jamsco: I respectively disagree with your article. A ketogenic diet has http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33700928.html History | Permalink | Share it whizkid7 1 Fans 09:25 AM on 11/04/2009 Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as much as one person being cured by an alternative cure. They both mean nothing except to make you prejudiced against alternative medicine. For example if a fat person killed my father, then I may become prejudiced against fat people. The Eskimos have an average life span of only 60 years. John Hopkins Medical School says that cancer is a disease of many factors. They have broccoli sprouts in food stores that they have patented by making them extra high in sulforophane-- a cacner fighting phytochemical. Their Brassica Foundation is studying plants to use for cures for cancer and other diseases. As far as many factors, that means the pollution from the air, the pollution in your house and many other things can affect cancer. For example someone who does not smoke can get lung cancer from second hand smoke. http://www.graviolaleaves.com There is a University of California video on youtube about cancer and vitamin D. It show that vitamin D is very effective at preventing cancer according to recent studies. whizkid7: Your father dying while using an alternative cure means as http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/whizkid7/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_33919345.html History | Permalink | Share it Jamsco 0 Fans 02:41 PM on 11/04/2009 You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against alternative cures. I said the governments war on cancer is a joke. The reason for my post is to expose the people and websites behind this vegetarian movement being pushed down our throats. Many studies contradict other studies. Vegans will say things that are true and leave out many other things that are true that don't support what they say. I rarely see omnivores attacking vegetarians, it is always the other way around. If your way is so great why are many types of cancers and other illnesses more common with vegetarians. Why do vegetarians still make up about 35% of all cancer diagnosis' even though there are fewer of them in society? The omnivores with the "cancer rates", yous' don't consider other lifestyle factors that i'm sure contribute to them getting various ailments. This vegetarian agenda is about a much broader agenda to push their extremist left-wing agenda and to eventually restrict what we eat, to ban guns and hunting, and their anti-capitalist agenda. Jamsco: You didn't pay attention to my article, i'm not against http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Jamsco/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_33941923.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. There are More Comments on this Thread. Click Here To See them All spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… KJcured 1 Fans 10:08 AM on 10/28/2009 I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. In Feb. of this year I was diagnosed with STAGE IV IDC breast cancer: multiple tumors in my right breast, multiple tumors in the lymph nodes of my right arm pit, multiple tumors behind my sternum and a large cancerous mass in the bone of my sternum. I began eating mostly fruits & veggies in March of this year and as of my latest PET scan in August, the mass in the bone of my sternum is GONE, the tumors behind my sternum are gone and I'm down to a single much reduced tumor in my right breast and a single much reduced tumor in my right arm pit! I have had no chemo, radiation or other chemical treatment. I am proud to say that we are ALL capable of curing our own disease... with information! Thanks to the author for spreading this life saving news. KCB / Fayetteville, Georgia KJcured: I'm living and thriving proof that this "theory" has merit. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/KJcured/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_33549468.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 06:53 PM on 10/12/2009 I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on this article and I find that the level of misunderstood, misinterpreted comment alarming. It is clear to me that most folks really do not have any basic grounding in science. Campbell's work in the 1980s - BEFORE he emabrked on the China study showed that the major protein in cow's milk - CASEIN - is a promoter of cancer! Its is NOT a carcinogen in its own right. Then there was a thread about Kefir ( a fermented milk product and one of many from the Balkans and Eastern Europe). Somehow the writer has got the idea that casein is OK after all - its in Kefir and the longevity of people in the Balkans shows its OK. A quick Google Scholar seacrch will get you to the research. Casein is digested by the bacteria in kefir. Go back and read Cambpells book. Get your science correct! renew2: I have just been browsing through the 476 comments on http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32689809.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… renew2 0 Fans 08:10 AM on 10/11/2009 I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have started on the crits. I am hardly surprised at the crits - Campbell is reporting on stuff that is controversial to say the very least. I do not intend to comment on his credibility nor on the crits but offer this. We evolved as hunter gatherers and as such we would have eaten a diet that contained the occasional meat, nuts, berries, fruit and any other plant based material found ( by trial and error) to be non-toxic. This would have gone on for millenia. I venture to suggest that at no time along this pathway did we consume such large quantities of milk other than that delivered via breast feeding. If cow's milk casein is playing an unwanted role in cancer it might well be because of its "recent" appearance in our diet. renew2: I have read and re-read Campbell's book. Now I have http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/renew2/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_32610577.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 01:09 AM on 09/29/2009 (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do find them useful as a lifestyle study subgroup compared to the general population). One article claims SVA's live to an average age of 88: here is a press story: http://www.chicagotribune.com/topic/sns-health-aging-centenarians,0,300 9292.story?track=rss-topicgallery. That is a 28 year difference compared to the 80% meat/fat diet Inuit. By the way, I do work in the health field serving the native "Indian" population. My experience tells me some significant changes need to be made in their diet and lifestyle - of great concern is the incredible epidemic in obesity related type II diabetes (reaching 80-100% of the adult population in some tribes), significant problems with heart disease, and in the increased rate of cancer compared to the general population. The natives of today do not look at all the same as their elders in the old turn of the century black and white photographs! Here is another link on a 2001 study: http://lifetwo.com/production/node/20070107-longevity-seventh-day-adven tists-life-expectancy Note on the above study - the life expectancy comparing vegetarian SVA vs. non-vegetarian SVA's. The difference is minimal based on diet, although statistically significant...2-2.5 years. Other lifestyle differences have the greater impact (9 years or so) - controlled weight vs. obesity, daily exercise or not, smoking history, and a daily bowl of nuts (LOL). Cerrec: (I'm not a Seventh Day Adventist - but I do http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828831.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 06:11 PM on 09/28/2009 Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. No study showed that with meat. There was no mention of the 500,000 people study that showed that meat causes cancer. http://www.cnn.com/2009/HEALTH/03/23/healthmag.red.meat.lifespan/index. html Chuck_Bluestein: Thousands of studies show that fruit and vegetables prevent cancer. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31804828.html History | Permalink | Share it PublickStews 0 Fans 08:34 PM on 09/28/2009 Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? That study doesn't isolate the variable at all. It simply lumps everyone together based on meat consumption. Gee, you think there is a chance that the people who ate the most bacon and sausage ALSO ate lots of other crappy foods, and probably didn't eat a lot of vegetables and fruits, and probably ate in caloric excess? That study is completely meaningless. All it tells us is what we already know: that eating McDonalds instead of whole foods is bad for you. All these nonsense, anti-meat studies have a fatal flaw. They all rely on the false assumption that people with either eat lots of meat and no vegetables, or no meat and lots of vegetables. The best diet to prevent disease and avoid obesity is lean meat, lots of vegetables, and whole grains. The worst diet is processed garbage and American fast food. Most "plant based" diets fall somewhere in between. PublickStews: Do you know what it means to isolate a variable? http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31814807.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER Chuck Bluestein Always searching for latest health breakthrough 3194 Fans 05:53 PM on 09/30/2009 That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) that is one of the 27 National Institutes of Health (NIH). So I do know what it means to isolate one variable. This study cost a great deal of money and was with half a billion people. Just kidding. It was only with half a million people. Right after it was done, it was all over the TV news. So you are saying that you are right and they are wrong. Well actually on this post, I started a thread (I am GINKGO on it) that complained about the same thing and said that if you change more than one variable then you do not know what caused the change. Now I had many people disagree with me, as you can see by looking at it. So what did I do? I gave them website after website after website that explained that exact thing-- called the scientific method. http://www.stevepavlina.com/forums/health-fitness/33137-most-health-pro blems-caused-lack-intelligence.html But then there are no phytochemicals in animal foods whereas plant foods contain thousands of phytochemicals like resveratrol (in dark grapes), lycopene (in tomatoes and watermelon) and sulphoropahane that is in broccoli sprouts. They have already identified over 900 phytochemicals, but who is counting? Chuck_Bluestein: That study was done by the National Cancer Institute (NCI) http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Chuck_Bluestein/a-cure-for-cancer- eating_b_298282_31948770.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PublickStews 0 Fans 05:02 PM on 09/28/2009 Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, knee-jerk hippie readers who watch Oprah and shop at Whole Foods. Since Preston has written a book about "cleansing" (one of the biggest buzzwords in new age nonsense), this isn't surprising. Nowhere in the article does Preston acknowledge that Campbell's work has been widely criticized, or that his data barely matches up with his pronouncements. Nowhere do they mention that whey protein has been shown to have a protective effect, which throws his generalizations into question. And nowhere does she address the fact, documented by countless anthropologists, that indigenous hunter-gatherer societies like the Alaskan Inuit (who consumed a diet almost wholly comprised of animal protein, with 80% of calories coming from fat) had microscopic rates of cancer and heart disease. The American diet is deeply flawed, but it's not because of animal protein. If your diet consists mainly of lean meat, vegetables, and whole grains, and you are not eating in caloric excess, you are not at high risk for cancer or heart disease. To equate someone who eats chicken breasts and broccoli with someone who devours Big Macs on a regular basis is just plain intellectually dishonest. PublickStews: Intellectually dishonest and simplistic article obviously targeted towards petty bourgeois, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PublickStews/a-cure-for-cancer-eat ing_b_298282_31799360.html History | Permalink | Share it Cerrec 0 Fans 01:08 AM on 09/29/2009 The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular disease increases with age, statistically accelerating after the 5th decade of life. The average lifespan of the Inuit population group is sixty, which is significantly eight years less than the Canadian average. So, those who think the Inuit are doing something right...you might want to rethink this. Here is a link - posting current dietary/lifesytle gov guidelines in the prevention of the above: http://www.guideline.gov/summary/summary.aspx?ss=15&doc_id=5620&nbr=379 0 Cerrec: The incidence of diagnosed Cancer, Diabetes type II, and Cardiovascular http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31828822.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… seanpcooper 0 Fans 04:17 PM on 09/28/2009 HEY – read this! For the past 1.5 years or so I have inadvertently used myself as somewhat of a test bed that has pitted the low fat, plant based (high carbohydrate) diet against the Atkins, low carb, lifestyle. I say “lifestyle” because it is not a diet. I didn’t need to loose weight I was just concerned about high cholesterol. I first bought the China study as well as Dr. Caldwell Esselstyn’s book and followed them religiously for about 8 months. Everything was low fat (or non fat) plant based and absolutely no meat or dairy or even fish. Well after 8 months, I came down with Type 1 Diabetes! The carb load was so great that my pancrease crapped out on me. There are new studies now (google them) noting that a low fat diet equates to a high carb diet and that often ends up in Diabetes. My sugar levels were off the chart. I felt like suing Dr. Esselstyn and Campbell. I quickly droped the diet and Bought Dr. Bernsteins book about Diabeties. His approach was more or less that of Atkins or the Edeas’ Protein Power. My sugar levels were quickly brought down and in line with a “normal” non diabetic and what’s better – my cholesterol improved dramatically – go figure! I will never go back to “low fat” plant based. Basically it is pretty simple: my body now burns fat (yes bacon fat) instead of sugar (from bread). Interveiw Gary Taubes...please! seanpcooper: HEY â read this! For the past 1.5 years or http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/seanpcooper/a-cure-for-cancer-eati ng_b_298282_31795858.html History | Permalink | Share it Alvarask 419 Fans 11:56 PM on 09/28/2009 Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet or you will overload your pancreas. I did this to myself for years. I now understand that I need to eat meat WITH some animal fats to help regulate my blood sugar, while limiting white starches like rice and potatoes (I`m learning to use them more as a garnish than as a third or more of the meal), plus as many fruit and vegetables as my body tells me it wants when it has neither low nor high blood sugar. I had to work this out for myself. No doctor helped. Alvarask: Yes you have to have adequate fat in your diet http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Alvarask/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31826193.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… HUFFPOST SUPER USER rnm 52 Fans 10:34 PM on 10/04/2009 Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else was going on with you and how you got it has absolutely nothing to do with what you are proposing here. Please go do some very careful research on all of this because you are speaking out of complete ignorance on a plant based diet. TOTAL IGNORANCE.... rnm: Really sorry that you got diabetes, but OMG-- wahtever else http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/rnm/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_298 282_32216706.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… JamesNYC 8 Fans 03:18 PM on 09/28/2009 This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein causes cancer. It simply claims over and over again that there is overwhelming evidence. What journal are these findings published in? JamesNYC: This article doesn't point to any real evidence that casein http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/JamesNYC/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31791334.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER YeWight 94 Fans 01:12 PM on 09/28/2009 China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific scrutiny over the years, placing in doubt many of its conclusions. The study, nevertheless, had an interesting approach and design, but many flaws. You can research the subject for yourself, but here's just one article to tickle your fancy: http://www.babushkaskefir.com.au/historyofkefir.html The above is something that radically contradicts China Study casein claims. People in the Caucasus mountains are known to be some of the healthiest, longest living on the planet. The problem is - their diet is heavily based on a dairy product (kefir), which according to the China Study is bound to kill you (prematurely). Go figure. What will more than likely determine your future is in your genes, not so much in your diet. I have several nonagenarians in the family whose diet had always been heavy on dairy and meat and who happen to live long and healthy lives. And they are not an isolated example. Over the years, I have come across a number of families and individuals with similar histories and similar outcomes. YeWight: China Study is old news and had undergone serious scientific http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/YeWight/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b _298282_31782513.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… huntleyrussell 154 Fans 12:25 PM on 09/28/2009 Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect on cancer in our society because we consume so much of it. The average American consumes far more protein than required to meet our daily nutritional requirements (as much as 3 to 4 times as much in certain parts of the country). Protein is essentially for muscle growth, however the level or protein intake for Americans suggest we are all body builders, which we are not. Therefore, the excess protein in our diet becomes stored, primarily as fat, as our bodies are not able to use it all for growth. As cancer cells mutate, they require fuel to grow and expand. Eating the amount of meat we do, all of the excess fuel in our bodies provides a volatile situation for the growth of cancer. All of this is complicated exponentially by the use of hormones and the improper feeding of animal protein to our livestock, which pollutes a vast amount of meat and dairy products in the United States. A vegetarian diet provides the proper daily nutritional intake, as well as decreasing the risk of cancer by eliminating the fuel for its growth. huntleyrussell: Protein (or the more specific cacein) has a profound effect http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/huntleyrussell/a-cure-for-cancer-e ating_b_298282_31779366.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… PaleoMan 1 Fans 11:27 AM on 09/28/2009 I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, and his data on animal protein and cancer. While the link between casein and cancer seemed fairly well established, it seemed like much more of a leap to conclude that all animal protein causes or promotes cancer and there seemed to be little scientific support for this broader conclusion. Granted, some data on processed meats supports an increased cancer risk, but that might be explained by the nitrites and processing. There is a little known self published book written by DeLamar Gibbons, MD, who practiced medicine in the Four Corners Region on the Navajo Reservation for many decades. The book is entitled, Their Secrets: Why the Navaho Indians Never Get Cancer. Gibbons insisted that he had reviewed the records of 25,000 admissions to the Monument Valley Hospital and several other hospitals as well in outlying communities for the decades in question and had not found a single instance of a Navajo who practiced traditional taboos ever getting cancer of any kind. Gibbons sought to explore the differences that might account for the negligible cancer rates in traditional living Navajos. He found that dairy products were avoided. But grassfed meat was eaten in abundance, especially lamb and mutton. And grassfed meat is very high in conjugated linoleoic acid (CLA), which inhibits development and growth of cancer. In any event, the Navajos in question had anything but a vegan or vegetarian diet. PaleoMan: I read Professor T. Colin Campbell's book, The China Study, http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/PaleoMan/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31775784.html History | Permalink | Share it photo HUFFPOST SUPER USER simplify 272 Fans 12:17 PM on 09/28/2009 Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. simplify: Meat eaters will often find some justification for its consumption. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/simplify/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31778827.html History | Permalink | Share it photo multi LA 32 Fans 05:24 PM on 09/28/2009 I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned about what other people are eating... Since I've became a vegetarian you wouldn't believe the amount of backlash I have received from meat eaters about my eating choices.. People eat meat around me all the time and I don't criticize them.. multi_LA: I agree... Meat eaters seem to be the most concerned http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/multi_LA/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_ b_298282_31801119.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:51 AM on 09/28/2009 Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high fat dietary choices which are counter to our past million years of evolution and I believe we are suffering from this disparity. We have a coming disaster approaching us at one generation speed...a huge diabetes/obesity epidemic that will cost us billions of dollars to "doctor" without preventing/curing - out of the 1/3 children predicted to "go" type II diabetic, a sizable percentage will need dialysis 3x weekly as adults to survive! This is a billions dollar proposition, so something is going to have to change - we can't go down that road, folks. It was assumed (once) that the developement of agriculture in human society was a positive development leading towards increased health/longevity in the population...that assumption has been proved false...the roaming hunter/gather lifestyle has been proven to be better. Homo S. once had to be extremely active in order to survive...we were lean, mean, fighting machines...now we pack ourselves into a suv, drive to Walmart, walk around with a shipping cart, fill it to the brim, pack it home, and pack it in...while we sit front side to a tv/computer. Having said this, going out to my greenhouse for some fresh tomatoes, basil, and swiss chard....and it's time for me to go out for a long walk and pick up some wild pine nuts....and a brown trout or two... Good luck my fellow primates! Cerrec: Our culture promotes easy access to calories, sedentary lifestyle, high http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31771059.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Cerrec 0 Fans 09:49 AM on 09/28/2009 There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with mainland native americans, who presently suffer high rates of diabetes, heart disease, and obesity on our "modern world diet". When they have returned to their traditional diet/food gathering lifestyle = fewer calories, greater activity, less saturated fat ....basically pinenuts, seed grass, wild plants, minimal wild lean meat etc. there has been a statistically significant drop in signs of disease processes compared to their "modern lifestyle compatriots". What we have going on is far more complex than simply meat vs. vegan diets, although I think meat/dairy based diets have significant health issues. I would propose that the healthiest diet would be omnivorous tilted towards plants/seeds w/minimal amount of lean wild grown meat and minimal dairy - as close to possible to our 1 million year old natural diet that we are biologically adapted for (take away the extremes of Inuit/Alaskan native artic tundra). Noted are these human phys characteristics - relatively small jaw w/ small caninines, plant/seed grinding molars (not shearing molars as in predatory meat eating animals), a small stomach w/moderate ph acid & a long intestinal tract designed for extracting optimum amount of nutrition (calories) from plant based foods. Cerrec: There have been interesting nutritional/life style studies done working with http://www.huffingtonpost.com/social/Cerrec/a-cure-for-cancer-eating_b_ 298282_31770977.html History | Permalink | Share it This comment has been down-ranked into oblivion. View comment You have not right to carry out this operation or Error this operation. spinner Loading comments… Page: 1 2 3 4 5 Next › Last » (12 total) new comment(s) on this entry — Click to refresh spinner Loading comments… FOLLOW US * Facebook * Twitter * Apple * Android * Blackberry * Email * Rss Connect with your friends Check out stories you might like, and see what your friends are sharing! [facebook_promo_connect.png?3] Most Popular on Healthy Living Potential Aids Cure Researchers Announce Potential HIV Breakthrough Like [DEL: :DEL] 7k Migraine Triggers How Significant Are Migraine Triggers, Really? 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All rights reserved. * Part of AOL Lifestyle Quantcast HuffPost Lightbox #Grasscity.com Forums RSS Feed Grasscity.com Forums - Indoor Marijuana Growing - RSS Feed Grasscity.com - the best counter-culture community User Name User Name_ Password __________ Log in * > register! * > lost your password * grasscity shop * grasscity community * smoking and usage * chill out zone * marijuana cultivation * marijuana news and discussions * Forum Help Blogs Recent Entries Best Entries Best Blogs Blog List Search Blogs Go Back Grasscity.com Forums > MARIJUANA CULTIVATION > Indoor Marijuana Growing Reload this Page why is my plant taking forever to grow? Register Blogs FAQ Photo Gallery Calendar Search Today's Posts Mark Forums Read Notices Grasscity.com 10% Discount Like us on Facebook for up to date news regarding product updates, Grasscity discount coupons, forum news, competitions and give aways. Keep in touch with Grasscity via your favorite social network. 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My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe Reply View First Unread View First Unread LinkBack Thread Tools Search this Thread #1 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:45 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ My plant is about 2 months old and its about half a foot tall maybe a foot. i super cropped one time and i accidently topped her. i had ph issuse which made fan leafs curl in and pretty much die so i pulled them off. im using FFHF 150hps light and i just trans planted maybe a week ago to a 3 gallon pot. when i transplanted i think it was root bound and i removed the lower 2 branches to feed the top 2 node sites. what is wrong? did i put to much stress on her? and im using fox farm nutes Reply With Quote #2 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:47 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ and i fixed my ph issuses Reply With Quote #3 Unread 01-19-2013, 09:50 PM kenny357 is offline kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 is starting to feel the vibe kenny357 Registered User kenny357's Avatar Join Date: Dec 2010 Posts: 117 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ What size pot did you start in? Let the roots fill out that new pot a bit and she'll probably blow up. Reply With Quote #4 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:35 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. Reply With Quote #5 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:43 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ you waited way to long on transplant and thats your problem. Your canopy can only grow as much as the roots grow my friend. I transplant to a 5 gallon wide after 1 week in the 1 gallon pot cause if you wait to long your plant wont grow. considering you just got to transplanting it you had Ph problems your plant is probably mad stressed. IMO scrap it and start over especially if you haven't started the flowering stage. It takes 3 weeks for my cutting to go from 4 inches to 15 inches in three weeks time with a 150 watt HPS with AN nutes. Even when I was using and LED for veg and fox farm nutes my plants would get over 15 inches in no more than four weeks. IMO it would be a waste of time to continue threw with the flower since it has struggled so much through the veg. so i say scrap it start over and you will be in a better position in four weeks my friends. little fyi I had to use almost full strength of fox farms trio and powders according to their schedule every watering instead of just two times a week, didn't burn it. Ph water to 6.2 as well and transplant at the most ten days after being in a one gallon pot suggest five gallon wide and if you can't do that get three gallon wide pots. Reply With Quote #6 Unread 01-19-2013, 10:46 PM MoCakes is offline MoCakes humbly walks among the Blades MoCakes Registered User Join Date: Nov 2012 Location: Cali Posts: 122 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] maybe a half gallon maybe smaller. i saw plants in solo cups bigger then mine so i thought it was okay. i did see big roots all bunches up at the bottom when i transplanted. there you go man it was root bound for all you know the roots could be wrapped all around each other which will cause problems later on in the grow. your plant is probably so stressed that it wont even start to grow in the new pot for a couple days to week. Reply With Quote #7 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:19 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Reply With Quote #8 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:31 PM Bkinboston is offline Bkinboston humbly walks among the Blades Bkinboston Registered User Bkinboston's Avatar Join Date: Jul 2012 Location: Boston/Brooklyn Posts: 67 Quote: Originally Posted by coughmaster420 [viewpost.gif] I dont have any other good seed this is a cheese plant my fav. think im gunna stick it out and let the roots fill and just water and feed see what happens in the next few weeks Yea it should bounce back in a week , you might have to baby it until. Reply With Quote #9 Unread 01-19-2013, 11:42 PM coughmaster420 is offline coughmaster420 humbly walks among the Blades coughmaster420 Registered User Join Date: Dec 2012 Posts: 47 Re: why is my plant taking forever to grow? __________________________________________________________________ will do thank you everyone!!!! Reply With Quote Reply << Previous Thread | Next Thread >> Thread Tools Search this Thread Show Printable Version Show Printable Version Email this Page Email this Page Search this Thread: ____________________ Go Advanced Search Posting Rules You may not post new threads You may not post replies You may not post attachments You may not edit your posts __________________________________________________________________ BB code is On Smilies are On [IMG] code is On HTML code is Off Trackbacks are On Pingbacks are On Refbacks are Off __________________________________________________________________ Forum Rules All times are GMT +1. The time now is 11:26 PM. 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Van Essen Banner Riverhead, NY o Phone: 1-888-78PLANT o Fax: 631-722-8787 © 2013 Plant Connection, Inc. o Privacy Policy Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture The International Treaty has a new Website at www.planttreaty.org THE INTERNATIONAL TREATY ON PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES FOR FOOD AND AGRICULTURE [arrowo.gif] official versions of the Treaty [arrowo.gif] video on the Treaty [arrowo.gif] signatures and ratifications [arrowo.gif] comments on compliance [arrowo.gif] Funding Strategy questionnaire [arrowo.gif] study on Compliance [arrowo.gif] Comments on compliance and the Funding Strategy, following the request of the Open-ended Working Group [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement Plant genetic resources for food and agriculture are crucial in feeding the world's population. They are the raw material that farmers and plant breeders use to improve the quality and productivity of our crops. The future of agriculture depends on international cooperation and on the open exchange of the crops and their genes that farmers all over the world have developed and exchanged over 10,000 years. No country is sufficient in itself. All depend on crops and the genetic diversity within these crops from other countries and regions. After seven years of negotiations, the FAO Conference (through Resolution 3/2001) adopted the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, in November 2001. This legally-binding Treaty covers all plant genetic resources relevant for food and agriculture. It is in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Treaty is vital in ensuring the continued availability of the plant genetic resources that countries will need to feed their people. We must conserve for future generations the genetic diversity that is essential for food and agriculture. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] What are "plant genetic resources for food and agriculture"? The Treaty defines them as "any genetic material of plant origin of actual or potential value for food and agriculture". [arrowgr.gif] What are the Treaty's objectives? Its objectives are the conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits derived from their use, in harmony with the Convention on Biological Diversity, for sustainable agriculture and food security. [arrowgr.gif] What is the Multilateral System for Access and Benefit-Sharing? Through the Treaty, countries agree to establish an efficient, effective and transparent Multilateral System to facilitate access to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, and to share the benefits in a fair and equitable way. The Multilateral System applies to over 64 major crops and forages. The Governing Body of the Treaty, which will be composed of the countries that have ratified it, will set out the conditions for access and benefit-sharing in a "Material Transfer Agreement". [arrowgr.gif] What are the conditions for access in the Multilateral System? Resources may be obtained from the Multilateral System for utilization and conservation in research, breeding and training. When a commercial product is developed using these resources, the Treaty provides for payment of an equitable share of the resulting monetary benefits, if this product may not be used without restriction by others for further research and breeding. If others may use it, payment is voluntary. [arrowgr.gif] How will benefits be shared? The Treaty provides for sharing the benefits of using plant genetic resources for food and agriculture through information-exchange, access to and the transfer of technology, and capacity-building. It also foresees a funding strategy to mobilize funds for activities, plans and programmes the help, above all, small farmers in developing countries. This funding strategy also includes the share of the monetary benefits paid under the Multilateral System. [arrowgr.gif] How does the Treaty protect Farmers' Rights? The Treaty recognizes the enormous contribution that farmers and their communities have made and continue to make to the conservation and development of plant genetic resources. This is the basis for Farmers' Rights, which include the protection of traditional knowledge, and the right to participate equitably in benefit-sharing and in national decision-making about plant genetic resources. It gives governments the responsibility for implementing these rights. [arrowgr.gif] Who benefits from the Treaty and how? All benefit, in many ways: [arrowo.gif] Farmers and their communities, through Farmers' Rights; [arrowo.gif] Consumers, because of a greater variety of foods, and of agriculture products, as well as increased food security; [arrowo.gif] The scientific community, through access to the plant genetic resources crucial for research and plant breeding; [arrowo.gif] International Agricultural Research Centres, whose collections the Treaty puts on a safe and long-term legal footing; [arrowo.gif] Both the public and private sectors, which are assured access to a wide range of genetic diversity for agricultural development; and [arrowo.gif] The environment, and future generations, because the Treaty will help conserve the genetic diversity necessary to face unpredictable environmental changes, and future human needs. [arrowgr.gif] When did the Treaty come into force? The Treaty came into force on 29 June 2004, ninety days after forty governments had ratified it. Governments that have ratified it will make up its Governing Body. At its first meeting, this Governing Body will address important questions, such as the level, form and manner of monetary payments on commercialization, a standard Material Transfer Agreement for plant genetic resources, mechanisms to promote compliance with the Treaty, and the funding strategy. [arrowgr.gif] What's next? Each country that ratifies will then develop the legislation and regulations it needs to implement the Treaty. [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowo.gif] Official versions of the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [arrowo.gif] Video on the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture English Español Français [arab.gif] [arrowo.gif] Text of the Standard Material Transfer Agreement English Español Français [chin.gif] [arab.gif] [russ.gif] [spacer.gif] [spacer.gif] [arrowgr.gif] Back to the Commission's Welcome page __________________________________________________________________ Agriculture 21 CGRFA Home Page [tag_logo.jpg]-Submit [funfacts_up.jpg]-Submit [treecareinfo_up.jpg]-Submit [faq_up.jpg]-Submit [mediasource_up.jpg]-Submit [findservice_up.jpg]-Submit [resources_up.jpg]-Submit [top_right_image.jpg]-Submit Tree Care Information [bottom_right_leaf.jpg]-Submit Skip Navigation Links Why Hire an Arborist Benefits of Trees Value of Trees Tree Selection Buying High Quality Trees Avoiding Tree and Utility Conflicts New Tree Planting Mature Tree Care Plant Health Care Palms Trees and Turf Proper Mulching Techniques Pruning Young Trees Pruning Mature Trees Why Topping Hurts Trees Insect and Disease Problems Recognizing Tree Hazards Avoiding Tree Damage During Construction Treatment of Trees Damaged by Construction Contact Us ____________________ Search Skip Navigation Links Home > Tree Care Information > New Tree Planting New Tree Planting Think of the tree you just purchased as a lifetime investment. How well your tree, and investment, grows depends on the type of tree and location you select for planting, the care you provide when the tree is planted, and follow-up care the tree receives after planting. Planting the Tree The ideal time to plant trees and shrubs is during the dormant season and in the fall after leaf drop or early spring before budbreak. Weather conditions are cool and allow plants to establish roots in the new location before spring rains and summer heat stimulate new top growth. However, trees properly cared for in the nursery or garden center, and given the appropriate care during transport to prevent damage, can be planted throughout the growing season. In tropical and subtropical climates where trees grow year round, any time is a good time to plant a tree, provided that sufficient water is available. In either situation, proper handling during planting is essential to ensure a healthy future for new trees and shrubs. Before you begin planting your tree, be sure you have had all underground utilities located prior to digging. If the tree you are planting is balled or bare root, it is important to understand that its root system has been reduced by 90 to 95 percent of its original size during transplanting. As a result of the trauma caused by the digging process, trees commonly exhibit what is known as transplant shock. Containerized trees may also experience transplant shock, particularly if they have circling roots that must be cut. Transplant shock is indicated by slow growth and reduced vigor following transplanting. Proper site preparation before and during planting coupled with good follow-up care reduces the amount of time the plant experiences transplant shock and allows the tree to quickly establish in its new location. Carefully follow nine simple steps, and you can significantly reduce the stress placed on the plant at the time of planting. 1. Dig a shallow, broad planting hole. Make the hole wide, as much as three times the diameter of the root ball but only as deep as the root ball. It is important to make the hole wide because the roots on the newly establishing tree must push through surrounding soil in order to establish. On most planting sites in new developments, the existing soils have been compacted and are unsuitable for healthy root growth. Breaking up the soil in a large area around the tree provides the newly emerging roots room to expand into loose soil to hasten establishment. 2. Identify the trunk flare. The trunk flare is where the roots spread at the base of the tree. This point should be partially visible after the tree has been planted (see diagram). If the trunk flare is not partially visible, you may have to remove some soil from the top of the root ball. Find it so you can determine how deep the hole needs to be for proper planting. 3. Remove tree container for containerized trees. Carefully cutting down the sides of the container may make this easier. Inspect the root ball for circling roots and cut or remove them. Expose the trunk flare, if necessary. 4. Place the tree at the proper height. Before placing the tree in the hole, check to see that the hole has been dug to the proper depth and no more. The majority of the roots on the newly planted tree will develop in the top 12 inches of soil. If the tree is planted too deeply, new roots will have difficulty developing because of a lack of oxygen. It is better to plant the tree a little high, 2 to 3 inches above the base of the trunk flare, than to plant it at or below the original growing level. This planting level will allow for some settling (see diagram). To avoid damage when setting the tree in the hole, always lift the tree by the root ball and never by the trunk. 5. Straighten the tree in the hole. Before you begin backfilling, have someone view the tree from several directions to confirm that the tree is straight. Once you begin backfilling, it is difficult to reposition the tree. 6. Fill the hole gently but firmly. Fill the hole about one-third full and gently but firmly pack the soil around the base of the root ball. Then, if the root ball is wrapped, cut and remove any fabric, plastic, string, and wire from around the trunk and root ball to facilitate growth (see diagram). Be careful not to damage the trunk or roots in the process. [new_tree_plant.rvsd.jpg] Fill the remainder of the hole, taking care to firmly pack soil to eliminate air pockets that may cause roots to dry out. To avoid this problem, add the soil a few inches at a time and settle with water. Continue this process until the hole is filled and the tree is firmly planted. It is not recommended to apply fertilizer at the time of planting. 7. Stake the tree, if necessary. If the tree is grown and dug properly at the nursery, staking for support will not be necessary in most home landscape situations. Studies have shown that trees establish more quickly and develop stronger trunk and root systems if they are not staked at the time of planting. However, protective staking may be required on sites where lawn mower damage, vandalism, or windy conditions are concerns. If staking is necessary for support, there are three methods to choose among: staking, guying, and ball stabilizing. One of the most common methods is staking. With this method, two stakes used in conjunction with a wide, flexible tie material on the lower half of the tree will hold the tree upright, provide flexibility, and minimize injury to the trunk (see diagram). Remove support staking and ties after the first year of growth. 8. Mulch the base of the tree. Mulch is simply organic matter applied to the area at the base of the tree. It acts as a blanket to hold moisture, it moderates soil temperature extremes, and it reduces competition from grass and weeds. Some good choices are leaf litter, pine straw, shredded bark, peat moss, or composted wood chips. A 2- to 4-inch layer is ideal. More than 4 inches may cause a problem with oxygen and moisture levels. When placing mulch, be sure that the actual trunk of the tree is not covered. Doing so may cause decay of the living bark at the base of the tree. A mulch-free area, 1 to 2 inches wide at the base of the tree, is sufficient to avoid moist bark conditions and prevent decay. 9. Provide follow-up care. Keep the soil moist but not soaked; overwatering causes leaves to turn yellow or fall off. Water trees at least once a week, barring rain, and more frequently during hot weather. When the soil is dry below the surface of the mulch, it is time to water. Continue until mid-fall, tapering off for lower temperatures that require less-frequent watering. Other follow-up care may include minor pruning of branches damaged during the planting process. Prune sparingly immediately after planting and wait to begin necessary corrective pruning until after a full season of growth in the new location. After you have completed these nine simple steps, further routine care and favorable weather conditions will ensure that your new tree or shrub will grow and thrive. A valuable asset to any landscape, trees provide a long-lasting source of beauty and enjoyment for people of all ages. When questions arise about the care of your tree, be sure to consult your local ISA Certified Arborist or a tree care or garden center professional for assistance. The PHC Alternative Maintaining mature landscapes is a complicated undertaking. You may wish to consider a professional Plant Health Care (PHC) maintenance program, which is now available from many landscape care companies. A PHC program is designed to maintain plant vigor and should initially include inspections to detect and treat any existing problems that could be damaging or fatal. Thereafter, regular inspections and preventive maintenance will ensure plant health and beauty. E-mail inquiries: isa@isa-arbor.com (c) 1998, 2004 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED JULY 2005 Developed by the International Society of Arboriculture (ISA), a non-profit organization supporting tree care research around the world and is dedicated to the care and preservation of shade and ornamental trees. For further information, contact: ISA, P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826-3129, USA. E-mail inquires: isa@isa-arbor.com © 2007 International Society of Arboriculture. UPDATED SEPTEMBER 2005 News What is an Arborist and How Can You Find One? From Planet Green a Discovery Company MORE >> Green Parking II: Putting Parking Lots to Work Green parking lots are defined as those that are designed to do environmental work. Parking lots should be designed to reduce the use of energy, improve environmental quality and to ensure more healthy conditions for people. Further, parking lots should be planned and designed to reflect regional landscape types. Plant materials and other materials of construction must be used in ways that will support this objective. MORE >> NADF Hardiness Zone Map Find out the right tree to plant where you live MORE >> Hot Topics "Hot Topic" press releases fro the USDA newsroom ranging from current pest alerts for specific regions of the United States to new trends in disease prevention and tree and plant care. MORE >> Don't Move Firewood! [dmf-logo-281-px.jpg] Camping Season is fast approaching. Please remember to not transport firewood. Tree-killing insects and diseases can lurk in firewood. These insects and diseases can't move far on their own, but when people move firewood they can jump hundreds of miles. New infestations destroy our forests, property values, and cost huge sums of money to control. MORE >> National Tree Benefits Calculator Make a simple estimation of the benefits individual street-side trees provide. With inputs of location, species and tree size, users will get an understanding of the environmental and economic value trees provide on an annual basis. For more detailed information on urban and community forest assessments, visit the i-Tree website. MORE >> National Register of Big Trees Big trees are symbols of all the good work trees do for the quality of the environment-and our quality of life. MORE >> [leaf_red_round.gif] "The wonder is that we can see these trees and not wonder more." - Ralph Waldo Emerson Resources New Tree Planting Brochure Available through the ISA Web store Planting and Pruning Education An educational DVD for homeowner associations, government entities, libraries, or realtors with demonstrations on proper planting and pruning. Available for purchase online at Rocky Mountain ISA Planting With a Purpose Knowing when, what, where, and how to plant is essential to a tree's life span. And if you want trees in your yard to be assets that continually appreciate in value, keep these important tips from the International Society of Arboriculture in mind before, during, and after planting a tree.MORE >> © International Society of Arboriculture 2009 P.O. Box 3129, Champaign, IL 61826 Email comments & questions to isa@isa-arbor.com #prev next The Plant Cell Skip to main page content * HOME * ABOUT * SUBMIT * SUBSCRIPTIONS * ADVERTISE * ARCHIVE * CONTACT US Quick Search [advanced] Author: ____________________ (e.g. Smith, JS) Keyword(s): ____________________ Year: ____________________ Vol: ____________________ Page: ____________________ Go User Name ____________________ Password ____________________ Sign In Sign In * Molecular Plant « Previous Table of Contents Next Article » * © 1999 American Society of Plant Physiologists Plant Vacuoles 1. Francis Marty1 1. Laboratoire de phytoBiologie Cellulaire, UPR ES 469, Université de Bourgogne, BP47 870, 21078 Dijon Cedex, France 1. ↵1 E-mail fmarty{at}u-bourgogne.fr; fax 33-3-80-39-62-87. Next Section INTRODUCTION The vacuoles of plant cells are multifunctional organelles that are central to cellular strategies of plant development. They share some of their basic properties with the vacuoles of algae and yeast and the lysosomes of animal cells. They are lytic compartments, function as reservoirs for ions and metabolites, including pigments, and are crucial to processes of detoxification and general cell homeostasis. They are involved in cellular responses to environmental and biotic factors that provoke stress. In the vegetative organs of the plant, they act in combination with the cell wall to generate turgor, the driving force for hydraulic stiffness and growth. In seeds and specialized storage tissues, they serve as sites for storing reserve proteins and soluble carbohydrates. In this way, vacuoles serve physical and metabolic functions that are essential to plant life. Plant cell vacuoles were discovered with the early microscope and, as indicated in the etymology of the word, originally defined as a cell space empty of cytoplasmic matter. Technical progress has variously altered the operating definition of the plant vacuole over time. Today, definitions continue to be colored by the tools and concepts brought to bear in any given study. Indeed, the combination of microscopy, biochemistry, genetics, and molecular biology is fundamental to research into the plant vacuole. In this review, vacuoles are provisionally defined as the intracellular compartments that arise as a terminal product of the secretory pathway in plant cells. They are ontogenetically and functionally linked with other components of the vacuolar apparatus (i.e., vacuoles and those membranous bodies that are either committed to becoming vacuolar or have immediately completed a vacuolar function). Experimental evidence suggests that material within the vacuolar system in plants derives confluently from both an intracellular biosynthetic pathway and a coordinated endocytotic pathway. The biogenetic pathways include (1) sorting of proteins destined for the vacuole away from those to be delivered to the cell surface after transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway; (2) endocytosis of materials from the plasma membrane; (3) autophagy pathways for vacuole formation; and (4) direct cytoplasm-to-vacuole delivery. Ultimately, sorting and targeting mechanisms ensure that specific proteins are faithfully assigned to conduct the vacuolar functions. The reader is referred to other contributions to this issue (i.e., Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999) and to previous reviews (Herman, 1994; Okita and Rogers, 1996; Bassham and Raikhel, 1997; Marty, 1997; Robinson and Hinz, 1997; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998; Herman and Larkins, 1999) for detailed information on specific aspects of vacuole biology. Previous SectionNext Section THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES Plant cell vacuoles are widely diverse in form, size, content, and functional dynamics, and a single cell may contain more than one kind of vacuole. Although major morphological differences were recorded by the very first microscopists, it has been commonly assumed that all vacuoles have the same origin and belong to a common group. However, with improvements in cell fractionation and biochemical analyses as well as in the use of new molecular probes, it has become possible to characterize specialized vacuolar compartments in the cells from a variety of tissues (Hoh et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997; Swanson et al., 1998; Webb, 1999, in this issue). In most cells from the vegetative tissues of the plant body, the central vacuole occupies much of the volume and is essential for much of the physiology of the organism. Among the many functions of this organelle are turgor maintenance, protoplasmic homeostasis, storage of metabolic products, sequestration of xenobiotics, and digestion of cytoplasmic constituents. In regard to the latter function, vacuoles are acidic and contain hydrolytic enzymes analogous to the lysosomal enzymes of animal cells. The membrane, or tonoplast, of such vacuoles contains the vegetative-specific aquaporin γ-TIP (for tonoplast intrinsic protein; Höfte et al., 1992; Marty-Mazars et al., 1995; Paris et al., 1996; Barrieu et al., 1998; see below). In some cell types, defense or signal compounds are stored in the vacuole, particularly within specialized cells located in strategically favorable tissues such as the leaf epidermis. As early as last century, it was observed that many pigments (e.g., anthocyanins) are localized in the vacuoles of epidermal cells from flowers, leaves, and stems. Recent findings suggest that the membranes of such specialized vacuoles contain specific ATP binding cassette (ABC) transporters (Rea et al., 1998). In contrast, reserve tissues of seeds and fruit contain vacuoles specialized in the storage of proteins (Okita and Rogers, 1996; Müntz, 1998; see Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). The membrane of the protein storage vacuoles (PSVs) contains the seed-specific aquaporin α-TIP (Höfte et al., 1992; Paris et al., 1996; Swanson et al., 1998; see below). Storage proteins are also synthesized and accumulated in specialized vegetative cells in response to wounding and to developmental switches (Maeshima et al., 1985; Sonnewald et al., 1989; Staswick, 1990; Herman, 1994; Jauh et al., 1998). Distinctively, the membrane of the vegetative storage vacuoles contains the aquaporin ∂-TIP (Jauh et al., 1998; Neuhaus and Rogers, 1998). In the endosperm of cereal grains, proteins accumulate in endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–derived organelles of vacuole-like size (see below). A few recent studies show that distinct vacuoles may simultaneously function in the same cell. Two separate vacuolar compartments, defined by α-TIP and γ-TIP, occur together in the root tip cells of barley and pea seedlings, mature tobacco plants, as well as in the plumule cells of pea seedlings (Paris et al., 1996). Barley lectin in root tip cells is found within α-TIP–positive vacuoles but not in γ-TIP–positive vacuoles, whereas the barley acid cysteine protease, aleurain, is specifically contained within γ-TIP–positive vacuoles but is absent from α-TIP–positive vacuoles. Thus, α-TIP defines a storage vacuole in which proteins are protected against degradative enzymes, whereas γ-TIP defines a separate, acidic, lytic vacuole. As cells develop large vacuoles, these two compartments appear to merge because the marker membrane antigens, α-TIP and γ-TIP, colocalize to the same membrane, at least in certain regions of the vacuolar compartments (Paris et al., 1996). Two distinct vacuole types are similarly found in living protoplasts of barley aleurone (Swanson et al., 1998). In addition to PSVs, aleurone cells contain a second type of lytic organelle, designated as secondary vacuoles by the authors of this study. Although PSVs and secondary vacuoles are lytic organelles with acidic contents, it was suggested that the secondary vacuoles, which have many features typical of plant vacuoles, function as lysosomes and could be involved in the programmed death of aleurone cells (Swanson et al., 1998). Another example of the versatility of vacuoles comes from investigations of the motor cells of the pulvini from Mimosa pudica (Fleurat-Lessard et al., 1997). The vacuole that occurs in the immature (nonreactive) motor cell is located near the nucleus, contains large amounts of tannins, and is believed to act as a Ca^2+ store. The “aqueous” vacuole that is additionally found in mature motor cells does not contain tannins, is much larger than the tannin-containing vacuole, and occupies a central position in mature cells. The changes in cell volume that are responsible for pulvini-mediated leaf movement result from massive water fluxes mainly across the membrane of the larger, aqueous vacuole, on which the γ-TIP aquaporin and the vacuolar-type H ^+-translocating ATPase (V-ATPase) are detected almost exclusively (for a review of membrane ATPases, see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Both vacuoles change shape to effect cell shrinkage. The tannin-containing vacuole forms interconnected tubules, whereas the aqueous vacuole develops membrane wrinkles. In any case, the tannin vacuole and the aqueous vacuole do not merge but rather coexist within the mature motor cell. Additionally, because vacuoles are highly dynamic organelles, often capable of transforming in terms of both form and function, several “generations” of vacuole may be found within a given cell. In the cells of developing pea cotyledons, for instance, two categories of vacuole are reported: a declining, vegetative γ-TIP–associated vacuole; and a newly formed, α-TIP–associated storage vacuole (Hoh et al., 1995). Moreover, in suspension-cultured cells subjected to sucrose starvation, protein degradation is supported by numerous active autophagic vacuoles that are present together with the large, more mature central vacuole (Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). After completion of autophagic digestion, the small vacuoles are subsequently incorporated into the central vacuole. However, when intracellular digestion is inhibited, autophagic vacuoles containing undigested substrates remain in the cytoplasm as residual bodies, apart from the large central vacuole. The diversity of function and form outlined in the above examples illustrates that the cytological definition of vacuoles is likely to cover several biochemically and physiologically distinct entities. Vacuoles, as dynamic organelles, can thus be viewed in the right perspective only if their dynamic nature itself is understood. In several instances, entities that may be variously defined according to different morphological, biochemical, and physical criteria may not necessarily correspond to distinct physiological units. Previous SectionNext Section BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES Until recently, our knowledge of the biosynthesis and maintenance of vacuoles was based largely on morphological observations. Technological breakthroughs over the past few years have advanced our understanding of vacuolar biogenesis to a more detailed molecular level. Resident vacuolar proteins as well as proteins destined for degradation are delivered to the vacuole via the secretory pathway, which includes the biosynthetic, autophagic, and endocytotic transport routes that are presented in Figure 1. The basic mechanisms that organize these routes in eukaryotes are highly conserved across phyla (see Battey et al., 1999; Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Early Secretory Pathway In plant cells, as in animal cells and yeast, anterograde transport of newly synthesized soluble as well as membrane proteins through the vacuolar pathway begins at the ER. Most soluble proteins destined for the vacuole are synthesized as precursors with a transient N-terminal signal peptide by membrane-bound polysomes. The nascent precursor form is efficiently targeted to the ER lumen. After their cotranslational translocation across the ER membrane, the secretory proteins are folded and subjected to early post-translational modifications. ER-resident proteins, such as the lumenal binding protein BiP (Denecke et al., 1991), assist newly synthesized polypeptides in acquiring their correct conformation. Proteins that fail to attain the correct three-dimensional structure are eventually degraded by a mechanism that does not involve the Golgi complex–mediated route to the vacuole. Alternatively, some proteins that are not properly folded in the ER are delivered back to the cytosol by reverse translocation across the ER (Pedrazzini et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998; see Vitale and Denecke, 1999, in this issue). Figure 1. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 1. A Working Model for Transport Pathways in the Vacuolar Apparatus. Seven basic pathways are used for the biogenesis, maintenance, and supplying of vacuoles. Pathway 1: entry and transport in the early secretory pathway (from ER to late Golgi compartments). Pathway 2: sorting of vacuolar proteins in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) to a pre/provacuolar compartment (PVC) via an early biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 3: transport from PVC to vacuole via the late biosynthetic vacuolar pathway. Pathway 4: transport from early secretory steps (ER to Golgi complex; pathway 1) to the vacuole via an alternative route with possible material accretion from Golgi (indicated by the asterisk). Pathway 5: endocytotic pathway from the cell surface to the vacuole via endosomes. Pathway 6: cytoplasm to vacuole through autophagy by degradative or biosynthetic pathways. Pathway 7: transport of ions and solutes across the tonoplast. AV, autophagic vacuole; E, early endosome; ER, endoplasmic reticulum; PVC, pre/provacuolar compartment; TGN, trans-Golgi network. Secretory proteins that are inserted into or translocated across the ER membrane can contain sorting signals required for their targeting to and/or retention in almost any of the compartments along the secretory pathway. For some proteins, the target organelle is the ER itself, and these proteins are not transported further. All other proteins competent for transport along the secretory pathway are carried to the Golgi complex via a still elusive vesiculo-tubular intermediate compartment. Indeed, tubular continuities have been shown to form direct linkages between the ER and the Golgi complex. Consequently, tubular transport might occur in a direction tangential, rather than perpendicular, to the Golgi stacks, in a manner that differs, therefore, from that usually assumed to operate in animal and fungal cells. The Golgi complex has a pivotal role in the secretory pathway. In plant cells, it consists of a set of dispersed units (dictyosomes) surrounded by a proteinaceous matrix. Like its counterpart in animal cells, each morphological Golgi unit in the plant cell includes a Golgi stack and a trans-Golgi network (TGN; Marty, 1978; Staehelin and Moore, 1995; Dupree and Sherrier, 1998). The Golgi stacks consist of three discrete groups of cisternae (cis, medial, and trans) that can be defined by their distinct morphologies and by their cytochemical and biochemical properties. Covalent and conformational modifications of newly synthesized secretory proteins, which begin in the ER, are continued in the Golgi complex and post-Golgi compartments. As they are being processed, vacuolar proteins transit through the early stages of the secretory pathway together with proteins that are destined to be exported into the extracellular medium or delivered to the plasma membrane. Late Secretory Pathway—From TGN to Prevacuoles The TGN is a major branch point in the secretory pathway and is the site of multiple sorting events that separate proteins destined for exocytotic egress from those progressing to the vacuole. The TGN varies in size according to the specific function of the cell. Under the hypothesis that biogenetic and trafficking processes are modulated in response to specific cell requirements, comprehensive morphological studies have been performed in actively vacuolating cells. The processes involved in the formation of vacuoles and their partitioning during mitosis, for example, are conveniently studied in the differentiating cells of the root meristem. Figure 2 shows the partitioning of mitotic provacuole clusters into daughter cells. In cells in which new vacuoles are being formed, the TGN consists of a twisted, polygonal meshwork of smooth-surfaced anastomosing tubules extending from a central disk-shaped cisternal cavity facing the Golgi stack. Via lateral linkages, a single TGN might be shared by several Golgi units. Clathrin-coated blebs and local swellings containing internal vesicles can be observed along the tubules, and numerous vesicles budding from the TGN mediate the transport of biomolecules to the vacuole. Figure 2. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 2. Partitioning of the Vacuolar Apparatus during Mitosis. Distribution of mitotic provacuole clusters in vacuolating cells from the root meristem of horseradish. The vacuolar apparatus was selectively labeled by the zinc iodide–osmium reaction (see Marty, 1978). The specimen (3 μm thick) was examined without counterstain at 2.5 MV with a very high voltage (3 MV) electron microscope. Images were processed using Photoshop software (Adobe, San Jose, CA). Provacuoles are shown in yellow, Golgi complexes in red, and mitochondria and plastids in blue. The Prevacuolar Compartment The TGN-derived vesicles on the vacuolar pathway form an intermediate compartment between the late trans-Golgi sorting site and the vacuole. These vesicles have been collectively referred to as provacuoles because they act ontogenetically as the immediate progenitors of the vacuole. They also mediate transport between the ER/Golgi complex and the vacuole and thus take functional precedence in the path to the vacuole. On account of this succession, they can be said to act as a physiological prevacuolar compartment (PVC) for cargo proteins en route to the vacuole (Marty, 1978, 1997). Nascent provacuoles, budding from nodes of the TGN meshwork, have an average diameter (∼100 nm) distinctly larger than the diameter of the TGN tubules (∼15 nm). Rather quickly, the vesicular provacuoles extend into tubular provacuoles having roughly the same bore (100 nm) as the vesicles from which they derive. Their lumen is filled with vesicles that are presumably derived from microinvagination of their membranes (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The extensive tubular provacuoles in vacuolating cells may be an enhanced version of the ubiquitous PVC described in mammalian cells and yeast (Piper et al., 1995). The membrane proliferation results from a dynamic effect that would occur either if membrane flow out of the provacuole were slowed down or if the membrane input from the TGN and/or the endocytotic tributary were increased. Furthermore, the provacuolar compartment might be a critical junction in post-Golgi trafficking at which the endocytotic and vacuolar biogenetic pathways converge. Autophagy and Vacuolation As revealed by three-dimensional high-voltage electron microscopy, the formation of autophagic vacuoles begins with a striking sequence of provacuole tubulation that proceeds to enclose discrete volumes of cytoplasmic material (Marty, 1978, 1997). Figure 3 represents this sequence of events, whereby tubular provacuoles produce digitate extensions that form cagelike traps so as to sequester portions of cytoplasm. Adjacent bars of the cage then fuse in a zipperlike fashion and, through transient palmar connections, build a continuous and tight cavity around the segregated portion of cytoplasm. Sections through these ball-shaped structures are recognized as early autophagosomes (i.e., a cytoplasmic area encircled by a narrow ringlike cavity bounded by inner and outer membranes). Cytochemical studies show that the TGN, provacuoles, and autophagosomes are acidic and contain lysosomal acid hydrolases. The cytoplasm in the autophagosome is degraded after it has been totally closed off. It is speculated that the digestive enzymes are released from the surrounding cavity as the inner boundary membrane deteriorates. Upon completion of the digestive process, a typical vacuole is formed. The outer membrane, which remains impermeable to hydrolytic enzymes, confines digestive activities within the forming vacuole and becomes the tonoplast. Newly formed vacuoles can then fuse together to produce a few large vacuoles. Ultimately, facilitated transport of water through the tonoplast, mediated by γ-TIP aquaporins, results in rapid vacuole enlargement (Ludevid et al., 1992; Maurel, 1997). Figure 3. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 3. Autophagic Activity of Provacuoles. Sequential stages of cytoplasmic confinement by provacuoles involved in cellular autophagy. Tubular provacuoles (1 and 2) form cagelike traps (2 to 4) enclosing portions of cytoplasm of a cell from the root meristem of Euphorbia characias. Adjacent bars of the cages then fuse to build a continuous and tight envelope (central structure [4]) around segregated portions of cytoplasm. Samples were processed as described in the legend to Figure 2. Starvation-Induced Autophagy In response to starvation, autophagy is reinitiated in cells that are already vacuolated. The autophagic pathway is activated, for example, after sucrose deprivation of suspension-cultured cells (Chen et al., 1994; Aubert et al., 1996; Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996). Portions of peripheral cytoplasm are first sequestered in double membrane–bounded envelopes (through the process described above) and then eventually digested. The small vacuoles, thus newly formed in the cytoplasm, are finally incorporated into the central vacuole. It has been shown that the induction of cellular autophagy is controlled by the supply of mitochondria with respiratory substrate and not by the decrease in the concentration of sucrose and hexose phosphates (Aubert et al., 1996). Formation of autophagic vacuoles has been correlated with an increase in the rates of intracellular proteolysis (Moriyasu and Ohsumi, 1996) and a massive breakdown of membrane polar lipids (Aubert et al., 1996). As a degradative pathway, autophagy plays a central role in protein and organelle turnover. It has been implicated in vacuolation and cell differentiation, and it is critical for survival during stress conditions such as nutrient deprivation. It can also be exploited for biosynthetic purposes as a cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway, as occurs in yeast, and with regard to supplying PSVs (see below). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS Specialized cells in seeds and vegetative organs accumulate proteins that function primarily as reserves of amino acids. The most common storage proteins are the globulins, which are found in embryos, and the prolamins, which are unique to cereal endosperms. Most storage proteins, including globulins and some prolamins, have been shown to be transported to vacuoles via the Golgi complex (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Chrispeels, 1991; see also Herman and Larkins, 1999, in this issue). However, studies on the assembly and transport of seed storage proteins in legumes and cereals have shown that reserve proteins can be sorted at diverse exit sites along the vacuolar pathway. As a result, proteins are stored in a variety of compartments specific to the plant species, tissue, stage of cell differentiation, and protein category. Golgi-Dependent and Golgi-Independent Routes to PSVs Pulse-labeling experiments, morphological and immunocytochemical studies, and biochemical analyses have provided compelling evidence for a Golgi-mediated route to the PSV in legumes and other dicots. Storage proteins are synthesized as precursors that are cotranslationally transferred into the lumen of the rough ER and transported via the Golgi apparatus into specialized vacuoles where proteolytic processing is usually needed to promote their stable storage. Whereas protein storage deposits are seldom observed in the lumen of the rough ER at the early stage of the transport pathway, condensed storage proteins are commonly detected in smooth-surfaced vesicles, ∼100 nm in diameter, in association with the cis-, medial-, or trans-cisternae of the Golgi complex (Hohl et al., 1996). Furthermore, three different types of vesicle are commonly found in close proximity to the Golgi area: vesicles that carry storage proteins, exocytotic vesicles containing cell wall polymers, and clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs). The existence of two different exit sites for vacuolar proteins at the Golgi complex and the utilization of “alternative” secretory vesicles suggest further variations to vacuole function (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). According to current views, vesicles containing storage proteins originate at the cis-Golgi cisternae, and proteins undergo maturation processes as they progress through the Golgi stacks up to the TGN, where they are sorted to the storage vacuoles (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). At the exit site, CCVs were found to bud off from the vesicles containing storage proteins. Subsequently, only the clathrin-free vesicles, but not the CCVs, are involved in the transport of soluble storage proteins to the vacuole. A different pathway recently has been suggested in cells from maturing seeds of pumpkin and castor bean (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998). In these cells, proglobulin and pro2S albumin were shown to be transferred from the rough ER to the PSV via large vesicles (200 to 400 nm in diameter). These large precursor-accumulating vesicles are distinct from the Golgi-derived vesicles but similar to the late protein bodies described in pea cotyledons (Robinson and Hinz, 1997). It was suggested that the core of storage proproteins contained in these large vesicles might derive directly from protein aggregates that are formed in the ER (Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998); they accumulate proprotein precursors and ER-resident proteins such as BiP but not mature products. In maturing pumpkin cotyledons, where the vast majority of storage proteins are not glycosylated, the precursor-accumulating vesicles bypass the Golgi apparatus such that their transport is not inhibited by the carboxylic ionophore monensin. In contrast to pumpkin seeds, castor bean seeds contain storage glycoproteins with complex glycans. Their processing occurs in the Golgi complex. The Golgi-processed glycoproteins are subsequently incorporated into the ER-derived precursor-accumulating vesicles at the periphery of the core aggregates. Storage glycoproteins, together with other storage proteins, are ultimately transported by the mature vesicle as far as the PSV. However, the final steps of the transport pathway to the storage vacuole are still unknown. It was suggested that the incorporation of the precursors into PSVs could occur by membrane fusion or by autophagic engulfment of the vesicle into the vacuole. Autophagy and PSVs Developing legume cotyledons comprise a model system to study both the ontogenesis of the PSV and the intracellular transport of vacuolar reserve proteins (Chrispeels, 1991). In the parenchyma cells of maturing legume cotyledons, the very few large vegetative vacuoles become replaced by numerous PSVs. Ultrastructural studies indicate that the preexisting vegetative vacuoles of immature parenchyma cells are trapped by a newly developing smooth tubulo-cisternal membrane system that already contains storage proteins (Craig, 1986; Hoh et al., 1995). However, the origin of this new membrane system is not clearly understood. The trapped vegetative vacuoles disappear as the novel storage vacuoles gradually fill up with storage proteins (Hoh et al., 1995). During the process, the storage proteins aggregate as individual clumps against the tonoplast and cause it to protrude into the cytoplasm. By a budding process, the protruding protein masses, still surrounded by the tonoplast, become independent small storage vacuoles (membrane-bounded “protein bodies” [PBs]) dispersed in the cytoplasm. At later stages of cotyledon maturation, the budding process stops, and the main original storage vacuole, which continues to accumulate reserve proteins, transforms into a distinct category of large storage vacuole. A third type of storage protein reservoir is formed in the cells at the middle to late stages of seed maturation, before storage protein synthesis ceases. Storage proteins accumulate in smooth-surfaced cisternae and channels with terminal dilations. These swellings may detach and become independent spherical bodies without cisternal connections. Finally, in germinating legume seedlings, PSVs are replaced by a vegetative vacuole through yet another type of developmentally regulated sequestration and disposal of organelles. Local invaginations of the tonoplast and engulfment of cytoplasmic fragments, subsequently degraded in the PSV, have been described (Herman et al., 1981; Melroy and Herman, 1991). Storage Proteins in Cereals Cereal grains differ from legume seeds by accumulating the alcohol-soluble prolamins as storage proteins in endosperm cells (Shewry et al., 1995). Cereal prolamins, like legume globulins, are cotranslationally loaded into the lumen of the ER. In many cereals, including maize, rice, and sorghum, prolamins form dense, insoluble accretions, which are retained within the lumen of the ER and, as in the case of the legumes, termed PBs (Lending et al., 1988; Geli et al., 1994). In developing endosperm cells, PBs become enlarged as newly synthesized prolamins are acquired and assembled with the aid of protein disulfide isomerase and molecular chaperones such as BiP (Lending and Larkins, 1989; Boston et al., 1991; Li and Larkins, 1996). Prolamins of other cereals, including wheat, barley, and oat, on the other hand, accumulate in vacuoles together with globulins (Shotwell and Larkins, 1988; Levanony et al., 1992). Globulins are transported along the anterograde pathway via the Golgi complex to the vacuolar compartment, whereas prolamin PBs are incorporated into the vacuole by an autophagic process (Levanony et al., 1992). Several cytological observations have suggested that rather similar autophagic mechanisms might operate when transgenes encoding storage proteins from cereals are expressed in vegetative tobacco cells (Coleman et al., 1996; Bagga et al., 1997; Frigerio et al., 1998). The transgene products form accretions in the ER, as in many storage cells in cereals, but the ER membrane–bounded PBs are subsequently captured by an autophagic process and delivered to the vegetative vacuole, where they are eventually proteolytically degraded. Interestingly, somewhat similar steps could be detected during the transport of storage proteins to storage vacuoles by large precursor-accumulating vesicles in normally developing cells (Levanony et al., 1992; Hara-Nishimura et al., 1998; see above). These results suggest that the cellular machinery of autophagy can be used for delivering cytosolic proteins and early membrane-bounded PBs to the vacuole, thus defining a biosynthetic cytoplasm-to-vacuole targeting pathway as occurs in yeast. The ontogeny of the compartments specialized in protein storage is thus diverse, and not all stores are (ontogenetically) homologous, although all belong to the vacuolar apparatus of plant cells. For a more detailed discussion of PSVs, see Herman and Larkins (1999), in this issue. Previous SectionNext Section ENDOCYTOSIS Endocytosis is defined as the uptake of extracellular and plasma membrane materials from the cell surface into the cell. Endocytosis has been characterized morphologically in plant cells in which both fluid-phase uptake and receptor-mediated internalizations have been visualized (reviewed in Low and Chandra, 1994; Marty, 1997; see also Battey et al., 1999, in this issue). Two distinct routes of internalization by clathrin-mediated endocytosis have been suggested to operate in plant cells: (1) from the plasma membrane to an endosomal compartment, including the partially coated reticulum, multivesicular bodies, TGN, and the PVC; and (2) from the plasma membrane to the PVC and the vacuoles (Low and Chandra, 1994). Novel intermediary structures arising from plasma membrane internalization have also been described as part of a compensatory recycling mechanism in actively secreting cells (Staehelin and Chapman, 1987). Rapid retrieval of plasma membrane to the cell interior, together with a fluid phase internalization of extracellular material, occurs in water-stressed cells (Steponkus, 1991; Oparka et al., 1993; Barrieu et al., 1999). Morphological studies of vacuolating cells by electron microscopy suggest that the endocytotic and biosynthetic vacuolar pathways converge at the provacuolar compartment before nascent autophagic vacuoles are formed (F. Marty, unpublished observations). The convergence point(s) between these pathways in already vacuolated cells is unknown, but it seems reasonable to hypothesize that the juncture could be at the prevacuolar compartment. Endocytotic vesicles and endosomes belong to the vacuolar apparatus, but their direct contribution to the formation of the vacuole remains uncertain. Whereas the vesicle-mediated internalization of plasma membrane has been documented in plant cells, the routes involved need to be precisely mapped by reliable tracers. A potential candidate is Tlg1p, a protein functionally homologous to the t-SNARE (see below) localized on a putative early endosome in yeast. Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS Vacuolar soluble proteins and membrane proteins alike travel through the early stages of the secretory pathway. Most probably, they are sorted away from proteins destined for delivery to the cell surface at the exit of the Golgi complex (see, e.g., Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Soluble proteins therefore require a sorting signal to tag them for vacuolar delivery after their egress from the Golgi complex; indeed, in the absence of such informational tags, they are secreted to the extracellular space. Three types of vacuolar targeting signals have been described (Chrispeels and Raikhel, 1992). Some vacuolar proteins (e.g., sporamin and aleurain) contain an N-terminal propeptide (NTPP) as a targeting determinant; others (e.g., barley lectin, phaseolin, tobacco chitinase, and Brazil nut 2S albumin) contain a C-terminal propeptide (CTPP), whereas some vacuolar proteins (e.g., phytohemagglutinin and legumin) contain a targeting signal in an exposed region of the mature protein. NTPP Signals The targeting determinants characterized in NTPPs from the barley cysteine protease aleurain (Holwerda et al., 1992) and from sweet potato sporamin (Nakamura et al., 1993) contain a conserved Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg amino acid sequence. This motif in the NTPP is necessary and sufficient for the sorting of the sporamin precursor to the vacuole (Nakamura et al., 1993; Matsuoka et al., 1995). Sporamin is delivered to the sink vacuole in cells from the tuberous roots of the sweet potato (Maeshima et al., 1985), whereas aleurain is sorted to a lytic compartment distinct from the PSV (Paris et al., 1996). CTPP Signals By contrast to NTPP signals, a vacuolar sorting consensus sequence has not been identified in CTPP targeting domains. Nevertheless, the CTPP was shown to be necessary and sufficient for the targeting of barley lectin to the vacuole (Bednarek and Raikhel, 1991; Matsuoka et al., 1995). The N-linked glycan of the CTPP in barley lectin is not necessary for sorting, although it modulates the rate of processing of the propeptide. Hydrophobic residues in the CTPP are important for the targeting of barley lectin (Dombrowski et al., 1993). Similar mutagenesis analyses have been performed to characterize the targeting signal of tobacco chitinase (Neuhaus et al., 1994). CTPPs from vacuolar proteins differ in length, and it was recently shown that a short CTPP from phaseolin contains information necessary for interactions with the vacuolar sorting machinery in a saturable manner (Frigerio et al., 1998). The barley lectin, phaseolin, and Brazil nut 2S albumin accumulate in PSVs, whereas tobacco chitinase is delivered to vacuoles of vegetative cells. Results indicate that more than one sorting mechanism might exploit the CTPP targeting signal and that transport of CTPP-containing proteins from the Golgi complex to the vacuoles involves more than one pathway (Matsuoka et al., 1995; Frigerio et al., 1998). Both CTPP- and NTPP-mediated vacuolar delivery also involve alternative structures and mechanisms, although NTPP and CTPP were found to be functionally interchangeable in directing proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1995). Internal Signals Other plant vacuolar proteins are synthesized without a cleavable vacuolar-targeting signal. Studies on phytohemagglutinin (PHA) from Phaseolus vulgaris (Tague et al., 1990) and legumin from Vicia faba (Saalbach et al., 1991) have demonstrated targeting information in exposed regions of the mature proteins, which are deposited in the PSVs of the reserve parenchyma cells of cotyledons. Strikingly, soluble proteins, such as PHA, and proteinase inhibitors, which are usually vacuolar, occasionally have been detected in the extracellular matrix, suggesting that the vacuolar targeting signals might not be recognized in all cells (Kjemtrup et al., 1995). Moreover, recent work on suspension-cultured cells showed that some soluble, fully processed, vacuolar hydrolases can be excreted into the medium under hormonal control. The exocytotic pathway for these “vacuolar” proteins would lead from either the vacuole or the PVC situated downstream of the last processing step (Kunze et al., 1998). Although short amino acid sequences of plant vacuolar proteins are sufficient to sort nonvacuolar proteins to the vacuole in yeast (Tague et al., 1990), plant proteins are sorted to the yeast vacuole by signals different from those recognized by plants, suggesting that the transport machinery is at least partially different between yeast and plants (Gal and Raikhel, 1994). Vacuolar membrane and intravacuolar soluble proteins are targeted to vacuoles by different mechanisms. Pulse–chase experiments and pharmacological studies on protoplasts from transgenic tobacco plants suggest that soluble proteins such as PHA and integral membrane proteins such as α-TIP reach the same destination by traveling through different paths (Gomez and Chrispeels, 1993). Signals in TIPs? Transport pathways for integral membrane proteins of the tonoplast have been investigated (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992; Jiang and Rogers, 1998). The vacuolar membrane α-TIP and γ-TIP are polytopic integral membrane proteins, with six membrane-spanning domains and both N and C termini located in the cytoplasm. In an early analysis of the targeting information contained in α-TIP, it was found that a polypeptide segment comprising the sixth membrane-spanning domain and the adjacent C-terminal, cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP is sufficient to target a nonvacuolar reporter protein to the tonoplast. In addition, the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail was not found necessary for the targeting of α-TIP in the same stably transformed tobacco cells (Höfte and Chrispeels, 1992). More recently, the trafficking of a chimeric integral membrane reporter protein was analyzed in tobacco protoplasts (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). It was found that the transmembrane domain of the plant vacuolar sorting receptor BP-80 (see below) directs the reporter protein via the Golgi complex to the prevacuolar compartment, and attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of γ-TIP did not alter this traffic. By contrast, attaching the C-terminal cytoplasmic tail of α-TIP prevented traffic of the reporter protein through the Golgi complex but caused it to be localized to vacuoles. It was thus concluded that there are two separate pathways to vacuoles for membrane proteins: a direct pathway followed by α-TIP from the ER to PSVs, and a separate pathway followed by γ-TIP via the Golgi complex and PVC to the vegetative lytic vacuole (Jiang and Rogers, 1998). Previous SectionNext Section VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS Soluble vacuolar proteins are diverted away from the exocytotic pathway through a receptor-mediated process that leads to their delivery to the vacuole. Two independent approaches resulted in the identification of plant vacuolar sorting receptors (Kirsch et al., 1994; Ahmed et al., 1997). It was initially hypothesized that the Asn-Pro-Ile-Arg motif conserved in the NTPP vacuole-targeting determinant of aleurain and sporamin, two unrelated proteins, was likely to be recognized by a sorting receptor (Kirsch et al., 1994). Indeed, a protein of 80 kD, called BP-80, has been affinity purified from a lysate of CCVs from pea. It possesses all the features expected of a vacuolar sorting receptor. It is a type I integral membrane protein that is localized in the Golgi complex and in small vacuolar structures. These vacuolar structures are distinct from both α-TIP and γ-TIP vacuoles but are possibly analogous to prevacuoles. Several homologs have been cloned, and the sequences appear to be highly conserved in monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants (Paris et al., 1997). An alternative approach led to the identification of an Arabidopsis receptor-like protein called AtELP (for Arabidopsis thaliana epidermal growth factor–like protein). This second approach was based on the use of known functional motifs present in many of the receptor proteins involved in clathrin-dependent intracellular protein sorting in mammalian and yeast cells (Ahmed et al., 1997). AtELP shares many common features with mammalian and yeast transmembrane cargo receptors. It is capable of in vitro interaction with the proteins of the TGN-specific AP-1 adaptor complex from mammals. It is located at the TGN, in CCVs, and on the PVC in the root cells of Arabidopsis. AtELP is highly homologous to BP-80, suggesting that it also may play a role in targeting proteins to the vacuole (Sanderfoot et al., 1998; see also Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Mechanisms recognizing the C-terminal or internal vacuolar sorting signals of soluble proteins have not been elucidated, and the identification of receptor-mediated pathways for membrane proteins is still in debate (see, e.g., Vitale and Raikhel, 1999). In addition to sorting receptors, other components of the vacuolar targeting machinery are being identified in plants. An interesting example is a V-ATPase activity associated with the Golgi complex, distinct from that of the tonoplast V-ATPase, and which is necessary for the efficient targeting of soluble proteins to the vacuole (Matsuoka et al., 1997; see Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). Previous SectionNext Section TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS Transport of soluble and membrane proteins in the secretory pathway is known to be mediated by the budding and fusion of transport vesicles (Rothman, 1994) and, in certain cell types or physiological situations, by cisternal progression and direct tubular linkages between different compartments (Pelham, 1998). As an early step in vesicular transport, budding involves coat proteins that assemble from the cytosol. CCVs, COPI and COPII-like vesicles, and “dense” vesicles have been described in plant cells (Robinson et al., 1998; see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Available data indicate that a considerable homology between coat proteins in plant, yeast, and animal cells exists, although we still know little of the molecular organization of transport vesicles in plants. Docking and fusion steps are thought to be mainly regulated by integral membrane receptors, termed SNAREs (for soluble N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor attachment protein receptors) (see Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). According to the prevalent model, SNAREs on vesicles (v-SNAREs) interact with cognate SNAREs on the target membranes (t-SNAREs). The soluble proteins NSF (for N-ethylmaleimide–sensitive factor) and α-SNAP (for soluble NSF attachment protein) then bind the v-SNARE/t-SNARE complex, and a rearrangement triggered by ATP hydrolysis finally promotes membrane fusion. The diversity and specificity of vesicle transport routes correlate with the complexity of traffic effectors, which include Rab proteins, Rab-binding molecules, Ca^2+, and components of the cytoskeleton. Many lines of investigation suggest that the mechanisms of vesicular budding, docking, and fusion are conserved across species and subcellular compartments. A growing number of proteins functionally homologous (orthologs) to the SNAREs characterized in yeast and mammalian cells is being identified in plant cells (Sanderfoot and Raikhel, 1999, in this issue). Initial results show that the sorting mechanism for soluble proteins to the plant vacuole agrees well with the SNARE model. The putative plant vacuolar receptor AtELP (see above) is able to recruit the adaptor complex 1 (AP-1) present at the TGN. As a consequence, the AtELP receptor appears to be included in TGN-derived CCVs. These vesicles carry the vacuolar cargo together with its receptor to the prevacuolar compartment, where the receptor (AtELP) and the prevacuole-specific t-SNARE (AtPEP12p; da Silva Conceição et al., 1997) are colocalized (Sanderfoot et al., 1998). The vacuolar t-SNARE AtVam3p is used downstream in the late vacuolar pathway. However, its function in homotypic (vacuole–vacuole) or heterotypic (prevacuole–vacuole) fusions or in autophagy is still being debated. Compelling microscopic evidence is also suggestive of transient tubular continuities between compartments of the vacuolar pathway in particular cell types or physiological conditions. Indeed, tubular continuities between the ER and the Golgi complex, between cisternae from the same Golgi stack, between TGN units from adjacent Golgi stacks, between the TGN and the pre/provacuolar compartment, and between provacuoles and autophagic vacuoles have been described (see Marty, 1997). Such interconnections are consistent with an intracellular transport by cisternal progression and maturation. Vesicular and nonvesicular transport mechanisms, it should be stressed, are not mutually exclusive. Previous SectionNext Section TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS The vacuole plays an important role in the homeostasis of the plant cell. It is involved in the control of cell volume and cell turgor; the regulation of cytoplasmic ions and pH; the storage of amino acids, sugars, and CO[2]; and the sequestration of toxic ions and xenobiotics. These activities are driven by specific proteins present in the tonoplast and indicated in Figure 4. These functions have been abundantly documented and reviewed (Sze et al., 1992; Rea and Poole, 1993; Barkla and Pantoja, 1996; Leigh, 1997; Maurel, 1997; Wink, 1997; Rea et al., 1998; see also Chrispeels et al., 1999; Sze et al., 1999, in this issue). According to the chemiosmotic model for energy-dependent solute transport, the proton-motive force generated by either the V-ATPase or the H^+-translocating inorganic pyrophosphatase (V-PPase) can be used to drive secondary solute transports. Movement of ions and water down their thermodynamic potentials is achieved by specific ion channels and water channels (aquaporins). The resulting ion, water, and metabolite fluxes across the vacuolar membrane are crucial to the diverse functions of the vacuole in plant cells, such as cell enlargement and plant growth, signal transduction, protoplasmic homeostasis, and regulation of metabolic pathways (Sze et al., 1992). Figure 4. View larger version: * In this window * In a new window * Download as PowerPoint Slide Figure 4. Model of ABC Transporters, H^+ Primary Pumps, H^+-Coupled Transporters, and Channels in a Simplified Tonoplast. Glutathione S-conjugate (GS-X) and metabolite (M) transport is achieved by an ABC transporter(s). An electrogenic H^+-ATPase (V-type) and an H^+-PPase acidify the vacuole. The proton motive force provides energy for uptake and release of solutes (i.e., cations, anions, and organic solutes, denoted A, B, or C indiscriminately here) across the tonoplast through transporters and channels. Water channels (aquaporins) facilitate the passive exchange of water. Recent studies have demonstrated the existence of a group of organic solute transporters, belonging to the ABC superfamily, that are directly energized by MgATP (Rea et al., 1998). These pumps are competent in the transport of a broad range of substances, including sugars, peptides, alkaloids, and inorganic anions. Belonging to the ABC family, the multidrug resistance–associated proteins (MRPs) identified in plants are considered to participate in the transport of exogenous and endogenous amphipathic anions and glutathionated compounds from the cytoplasm to the vacuole. They function in herbicide detoxification, cell pigmentation, storage of antimicrobial compounds, and alleviation of oxidative damage. A role for plant MRPs is also suspected in channel regulation and transport of heavy metal chelates. Previous SectionNext Section CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES Evolutionary perspectives place vacuoles at a central position in the physiological strategies of plants in their environment. In the vast majority of cells from the plant body, vacuoles provide the true milieu intérieur. They are responsible for the high cell surface–to–protoplasmic volume ratio required for extensive exchanges of material and information between cells and their environment. In cooperation with the cell wall, they create turgor, which is basic to cell hydraulic stiffness and plant growth. In specialized cells, pigment- and allelochemical-accumulating vacuoles serve as mediators of plant–plant, plant–microorganism, and plant–herbivore interactions. In seeds, vacuoles store proteins to be used for anabolism during seedling growth. The diversity of vacuolar functions parallels a diversity in morphology, biochemistry, and biogenesis. A number of different intracellular trafficking pathways have already been mapped and provide a structural framework for present concepts in vacuole physiology. The routes are many and varied, but there are significant overlaps, which suggests that although the vacuolar processes serve specific goals, they are all intimately related. Moreover, any one of the compartments from a given trafficking pathway may function so as to be, kinetically and physiologically speaking, “vacuole-like.” Much additional work is needed to characterize vacuoles and their progenitors more precisely by molecular criteria and to adjust recent molecular findings to a structural framework. Plant genetic screens will be useful to identify and characterize genes encoding plant-specific vacuolar functions. Autophagy, both in the degradative and biosynthetic pathways, arises as a key process in the biogenesis and remodeling of the vacuolar apparatus. It drives the formation of vegetative vacuoles when meristematic cells differentiate, it operates when the vacuolar apparatus switches alternately from vegetative to storage functions, and it is induced by starvation. Many questions are elicited regarding protein trafficking by autophagy. For instance, do autophagic membranes all have the same origin? What triggers the formation, movement, and fusion of the autophagic components? Much has also to be learned about the role of the cytoskeleton in organizing intercompartmental movement of vesicles and shaping vacuoles and their precursors. What are the regulatory mechanisms involved when cells inherit vacuoles from mother cells at mitosis? Previous SectionNext Section Acknowledgments The author is grateful to past and present members of his laboratory and to colleagues elsewhere for their contributions to the work discussed in this review. The author’s laboratory is supported by grants from the Ministère de l’Education Nationale, de la Recherche et de la Technologie (UPR ES 469), the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (Département des Sciences de la Vie), the Conseil Régional de Bourgogne, and the Délégation Régionale à la Recherche et à la Technologie. Previous Section REFERENCES 1. ↵ 1. Ahmed S.U., 2. Bar-Peled M., 3. Raikhel N.V. (1997). Cloning and subcellular location of an Arabidopsis receptor-like protein that shares common features with protein-sorting receptors of eukaryotic cells. Plant Physiol. 114, 325–336. Abstract 2. ↵ 1. Aubert S., 2. Gout E., 3. Bligny R., 4. Marty-Mazars D., 5. Barrieu F., 6. Alabouvette J., 7. Marty F., 8. Douce R. (1996). 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Compartmentation of secondary metabolites and xenobiotics in plant vacuoles. In Advances in Botanical Research, Vol. 25: The Plant Vacuole, Leigh R.A., Sanders D., eds (London: Academic Press), pp. 141–169. Search Google Scholar Teaching Tools Navigate This Article 1. Top 2. INTRODUCTION 3. THE DIVERSITY OF VACUOLES 4. BIOGENESIS OF VEGETATIVE VACUOLES 5. VACUOLAR SORTING OF STORAGE PROTEINS 6. ENDOCYTOSIS 7. VACUOLAR SORTING SIGNALS 8. VACUOLAR SORTING RECEPTORS 9. TRAFFICKING STEPS AND SNARE COMPONENTS 10. TONOPLAST FUNCTIONS 11. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES 12. Acknowledgments 13. REFERENCES 1. doi: 10.1105/tpc.11.4.587 The Plant Cell April 1999 vol. 11 no. 4 587-599 1. » Full Text 2. Full Text (PDF) 3. PPT Slides of All Figures 1. + CELLULAR COMPARTMENTS 1. Email this article to a colleague 2. Alert me when this article is cited 3. Alert me if a correction is posted 4. Similar articles in this journal 5. Similar articles in Web of Science 6. Similar articles in PubMed 7. 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