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Tank

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   This article is about the armoured fighting vehicle. For other uses,
   see [12]Tank (disambiguation).
   [13]Israeli Merkava Mk4 tank 
   [14]Israeli [15]Merkava Mk4 tank
   [16]Soldiers from U.S. 3d Armored Cavalry Regiment provide overwatch
   for other troops with their M1 Abrams main battle tank in Biaj, Iraq. 
   Soldiers from [17]U.S. 3d Armored Cavalry Regiment provide
   [18]overwatch for other troops with their [19]M1 Abrams main battle
   tank in Biaj, [20]Iraq.

   A tank is a [21]tracked armoured [22]combat vehicle designed to engage
   enemies head-on, using [23]direct fire from a large-calibre gun and
   supporting fire from [24]machine guns. Heavy [25]armour as well as a
   high degree of mobility give it protection, while the tracks allow it
   to cross even rough terrain at relatively high speeds.

   Tanks were invented and first manufactured for [26]World War I in
   [27]Lincoln, Lincolnshire, by the [28]British Army, to break the
   deadlock of [29]trench warfare; enabling troops to cross the "swept
   zone" (area under hostile fire) more rapidly than infantry. The
   breakthrough was then ideally to be followed up by deep penetration
   into enemy rear areas, supported by high mobility. Tanks seldom
   operate alone, being organised into [30]armoured units, usually in
   [31]combined arms forces. Without such support, tanks are vulnerable
   to special anti-tank [32]artillery, other tanks, anti-tank [33]mines,
   and (at short ranges) [34]infantry, as well as specialised anti-tank
   aircraft.

   While tanks are expensive to operate and [35]support, they remain
   among the most formidable and versatile weapons of the modern
   battlefield, both for their ability to engage other ground targets
   (including fortifications) and their [36]shock value against infantry.
   Tanks and armour tactics have undergone many generations of evolution
   over nearly a century. Although weapons systems and armour continue to
   be developed, often at very high cost, many nations have reconsidered
   the need for such heavy weaponry in a period characterised by
   [37]unconventional warfare.

Contents

     * [38]1 Etymology
     * [39]2 History
          + [40]2.1 World War I: the first tanks
          + [41]2.2 Interwar years: advances in design and tactics
          + [42]2.3 World War II: Blitzkrieg and combined arms
          + [43]2.4 The Cold War and beyond
          + [44]2.5 In the Iraq War
     * [45]3 Design
     * [46]4 Firepower
          + [47]4.1 Fire control
          + [48]4.2 Ammunition
     * [49]5 Protection
          + [50]5.1 Avoiding detection
          + [51]5.2 Armour
          + [52]5.3 Passive defenses
          + [53]5.4 Countermeasures
          + [54]5.5 Exposed crew
     * [55]6 Mobility
          + [56]6.1 Water operations
               o [57]6.1.1 Deep fording
               o [58]6.1.2 Amphibious tanks
          + [59]6.2 Power plants
               o [60]6.2.1 Multi-fuel diesels
               o [61]6.2.2 Gas turbines
     * [62]7 Command, control and communications
          + [63]7.1 Internal communications
          + [64]7.2 Tactical communications
          + [65]7.3 Computerised advances
     * [66]8 Vulnerability
          + [67]8.1 Attacks
          + [68]8.2 Logistics
          + [69]8.3 Climate
          + [70]8.4 Terrain
     * [71]9 Research and development
     * [72]10 See also
     * [73]11 Notes
     * [74]12 References
     * [75]13 External links

[[76]edit] Etymology

   There are at least three possible explanations of the origin of the
   name "tank". One is it first arose in British factories making the
   hulls of the first battle tanks: workmen and possible spies were to be
   given the impression they were constructing tracked water containers
   or tanks for the [77]British Army, hence keeping the production of a
   fighting vehicle secret.^[78][1] Another is the term was first used in
   a secret report on the new motorized weapon presented to [79]Winston
   Churchill, then [80]First Lord of the Admiralty, by British Army
   Lt.-Col. [81]Ernest Swinton. From this report, three possible terms
   emerged: "cistern", "motor-war car", and "tank". Apparently "tank" was
   chosen due to its linguistic simplicity.^[82][2] Perhaps the most
   compelling story comes from Churchill's authoritative
   biography.^[83][3] To disguise the device, drawings were marked "water
   carriers for Russia." When it was pointed out this might be shortened
   to "[84]WCs for Russia," the drawings were changed to "water tanks for
   Russia." Eventually the weapon was just called a tank.

[[85]edit] History

          Main article: [86]History of the tank

[[87]edit] World War I: the first tanks

                                Tanks of WWI

   [88][mid-Tanks_of_WWI.ogg.jpg] 
   [BUTTON] Play video

   Video clip of WWI tanks helping the Allies with an advance in Langres,
   France (1918).
   [89]Wikipedia:Media help 

   [90]British World War I Mark IV tank with experimental "Tadpole Tail" 
   British World War I Mark IV tank with experimental "Tadpole Tail"

   A tracked fighting vehicle was proposed in 1912 by Australian engineer
   L. E. de Mole. It was one of the earliest practical designs offered to
   the British War Office. He was notified in June 1913 that his idea had
   been rejected, though only some of his drawings were returned. He
   resisted urging from friends to sell the design to the German consul
   in [91]Perth.^[[92]citation needed]

   The stalemate on the [93]Western Front later prompted the British Army
   to begin research into a self-propelled vehicle which could cross
   trenches, crush [94]barbed wire, and be impervious to machine-gun
   fire.

   Originally, tanks were part of the British Navy, which would train and
   provide all tank personnel, and were considered "landships". The First
   Lord of the Admiralty, [95]Winston Churchill, sponsored the
   [96]Landships Committee, which created the first successful prototype
   tank, '[97]Little Willie', in September 1915.^[98][1] The vehicles
   were colloquially referred to as water carriers, later shortened to
   tanks, to preserve secrecy; the name became official in December
   1915.^[99][4]

   The first tank to engage in battle was D1, a British [100]Mark I,
   during the Battle of Flers-Courcellette (part of the [101]Battle of
   the Somme), on [102]15 September [103]1916, one of two to breach
   German lines and reach [104]Flers, but was knocked out by
   [105]friendly fire. One of these two also mistakenly machinegunned the
   [106]9th Norfolks, who were preparing to attack.^[107][5] The French
   developed the [108]Schneider CA1 working from [109]Holt caterpillar
   tractors, and first used it on [110]16 April [111]1917. The first
   successful use of massed tanks in combat occurred at [112]Cambrai on
   [113]20 November [114]1917. Tanks were also used to great effect in
   the [115]Battle of Amiens, when Allied forces were able to break
   through entrenched German position due to armoured support.

   Germany fielded very few tanks during World War I, with the [116]A7V
   being the only type produced in Germany before the end of the war, and
   of which only 15 were built.^[117][6] The first tank versus tank
   action took place on [118]24 April [119]1918 at
   [120]Villers-Bretonneux, [121]France, when three British [122]Mark IVs
   met three German [123]A7Vs. German forces initially lacked
   countermeasures, though they did (accidentally) discover solid
   anti-tank shot, and introduced wider trenches to limit the British
   tanks' mobility. However, changing battlefield conditions and
   continued unreliability forced Allied tanks to evolve throughout the
   war, producing models such as the very long [124]Mark V*, which could
   navigate large obstacles, especially wide trenches, more easily than
   their predecessors.

   Initial results with tanks were mixed; significant reliability
   problems caused considerable attrition in combat, with up to one third
   breaking down due to mechanical problems unrelated to enemy fire, and
   their speeds were very slow, with the 8mph (13km/h) attained by the
   [125]Whippet considered fast.^[126][6] Deployment in 'penny packets'
   also lessened their nonetheless formidable tactical value and
   impact.^[127][1] The spear-thrust type [128]blitzkrieg-tactics were
   only to be developed fully in [129]WWII, and while the tank would
   eventually make [130]trench warfare obsolete, World War I came to an
   end before this fully came to pass.

   During World War I two major types of tanks had evolved: the 'male',
   with large calibre guns, and the [131]'female', which only had machine
   guns. The 'female' was mainly designed as an anti-infantry platform to
   defend the 'male'.^[132][1] After World War I ended, the 'female' was
   largely replaced by machine gun carriers (such as the [133]Bren
   carrier), and later by [134]armoured personnel carriers.

[[135]edit] Interwar years: advances in design and tactics

   [136]Polish Vickers E. 
   Polish [137]Vickers E.

   With the tank concept now established, several nations designed and
   built tanks [138]between the two [139]world wars. The British designs
   were the most advanced, due largely to their interest in an armoured
   force during the 1930s. France and Germany did not engage in much
   development during the early interwar years due to the state of their
   economy, and the Versailles Treaty respectively (all German tanks had
   been destroyed as a condition of surrender^[140][1]). The U.S. did
   little development during this period because the Cavalry branch was
   senior to the Armored branch and managed to absorb most of the
   (limited) funding earmarked for tank development. Even [141]George S.
   Patton, with tank experience during WWI, transferred from Armor to
   Cavalry during this period (because the US Army decided not to fund a
   tank corps).

   Throughout this period, several classes of tanks were common, most of
   this development taking place in the United Kingdom. Light tanks,
   typically weighing ten tons or less, were used primarily for scouting
   and generally mounted a small-calibre gun useful only against other
   light tanks. The medium tanks ([142]cruiser tanks, in the United
   Kingdom) were somewhat heavier and focused on long-range high-speed
   movement. Finally, [143]infantry tanks were heavily armoured and
   generally very slow. The overall idea was to use infantry tanks in
   concert with infantry to effect a breakthrough, their heavy armour
   allowing them to survive enemy anti-tank weapons. Once this combined
   force broke the enemy lines, groups of cruiser tanks would be sent
   through the gap, operating far behind the lines to attack supply lines
   and command units. This one-two punch was the basic combat philosophy
   of the British tank formations, and was adopted by the Germans as a
   major component of blitzkrieg. [144]J.F.C. Fuller's doctrine of WWI
   was the fount for work by all the main pioneers: [145]Hobart in
   Britain, [146]Guderian in Germany, [147]Chaffee in the U.S., [148]de
   Gaulle in France, and [149]Tukhachevsky in the USSR. All came to
   roughly the same conclusions, Tukhachevsky's integration of airborne
   pathfinders arguably the most sophisticated; only Germany would
   actually put the theory into practice, and it was their superior
   tactics, not superior weapons, that made blitzkrieg so formidable.

   There was thought put into tank-against-tank combat, but the focus was
   on powerful anti-tank guns and similar weapons, including dedicated
   anti-tank vehicles. This achieved its fullest expression in the United
   States, where tanks were expected to avoid enemy armour, and let
   dedicated [150]tank destroyer units deal with them. Britain took the
   same path, and both produced light tanks in the hope speed would
   enable them to avoid being hit, comparing tanks to ducks. In practice
   these concepts proved dangerous. As the numbers of tanks on the
   battlefield increased, the chance of meetings grew to the point where
   all tanks had to be effective anti-tank vehicles as well. However,
   tanks designed to cope only with other tanks were relatively helpless
   against other threats, and were not well suited for the infantry
   support role. Vulnerability to tank and anti-tank fire led to a rapid
   up-armouring and up-gunning of almost all tank designs. Tank shape,
   previously guided purely by considerations of obstacle clearance, now
   became a trade-off, with a low profile desirable for stealth and
   stability.

[[151]edit] World War II: Blitzkrieg and combined arms

   [152]Polish 7TP tanks during manoeuvres. 
   [153]Polish [154]7TP tanks during manoeuvres.

   [155]World War II saw a series of advances in tank design. Germany,
   for example, initially fielded lightly armoured and armed tanks, such
   as the [156]Panzer I, which had been intended for training use only,
   and were inferior to, for example, French tanks in service at the
   time.^[157][7] The German army had four models in operation at the
   start of the War. The first two models, (Panzerkampfwagen I and II,
   commonly Panzer) were designed for training. The lack of advanced
   models led to their use during the early stages of the war. The Panzer
   I light tank had a crew of 2 with two 7.92 mm machine guns. The
   [158]Panzer II was an interim model with a crew of 3, a 20 mm main gun
   and one 7.92 mm coaxial machine gun. The [159]Panzer III was the first
   definitive German battle tank. It initially fielded a 37 mm weapon
   (later upgraded to 50 mm) and a crew of 5. It was the primary tank
   used during the German invasion of Russia in 1941. The [160]Panzer IV
   was the main German battle tank of World War 2. It was initially
   designed as a support weapon and fielded a short-barrelled 75 mm gun.
   This was later improved with a long-barrelled version (and new
   ammunition), which greatly increased the weapon's anti-armour
   effectiveness. The Panzer IV has the distinction of being the only
   German tank produced throughout the war. Early in the war they fared
   poorly in direct combat with British tanks and suffered severely
   against Soviet [161]T-34s, which were superior in armour, weaponry,
   and cross-country performance while being equal in speed. However,
   these fast-moving tanks and other armoured vehicles, competently used,
   nonetheless proved a critical element of the blitzkrieg.

   By this time most tanks were equipped with [162]radios (all U.S. and
   German,^[163][7] some Soviet; British radios were common, but often of
   indifferent quality), vastly improving the [164]direction of units.
   Where previously tanks had been seen as infantry support weapons, and
   were forced to move at the pace of the infantry, new doctrines and
   command structures allowed them to be used on their own, or in
   cooperation with infantry, instead of in a 'moving artillery'
   role.^[165][7] Closely associated requirements were to give infantry
   and logistics the speed to keep up with a rapid advance, and thus
   bringing into being [166]mechanized infantry.^[167][7]

   By the end of the war all forces had dramatically increased their
   tanks' firepower and armour; for instance, the ten ton Panzer I had
   only two machine guns; war's end, the standard German medium tank, the
   [168]Panther, mounted a powerful, high-velocity 75 mm gun and weighed
   forty-five tonnes.

   Another major wartime advance was the introduction of radically
   improved suspension systems. The quality of the suspension is the
   primary determinant of a tank's cross-country performance, and tanks
   with limited suspension travel subject their crew to massive shaking;
   this not only limits the speed at which the tank can travel, but also
   prevents firing while moving. Newer systems like the [169]Christie or
   [170]torsion bar suspension dramatically improved performance,
   allowing the late-war Panther to travel cross country at speeds that
   would have been difficult for earlier designs to reach on pavement.

   Tank chassis were adapted to a wide range of military jobs, including
   [171]mine-clearing and [172]combat engineering tasks. All major
   combatant powers also developed specialised self-propelled guns:
   [173]artillery, [174]tank destroyers, and [175]assault guns (armoured
   vehicles carrying large-calibre guns). German and Soviet assault guns,
   simpler and cheaper than tanks, had the heaviest guns in any vehicles
   of the war, while American and British tank destroyers were scarcely
   distinguishable (except in doctrine) from tanks.

   [176]Turrets, which were not previously a universal feature on tanks,
   were recognised as the most efficient location for the main gun. In
   order to engage armoured targets, the tank needed a single, powerful
   gun, unlike some prewar designs (like the Soviet [177]T-35), which
   were often equipped with multiple turrets featuring low-calibre
   armament, or one larger gun in a fixed position. Most tanks retained
   at least one hull machine gun.

[[178]edit] The Cold War and beyond

          See also: [179]Cold War

   [180]A Polish tank company equipped with T-55 tanks. 
   A Polish tank company equipped with [181]T-55 tanks.
   [182]Serbian M-84AB1 tank, modernization of Yugoslav M-84 tank in
   Kuwait. 
   Serbian M-84AB1 tank, modernization of Yugoslav [183]M-84 tank in
   Kuwait.

   After WWII, tank development proceeded largely as it had before, with
   improvement to both the medium and heavy classes. Light tanks were now
   limited to the reconnaissance role, and in U.S. use, airborne support
   as well. However, the weight limitations of air transport made a
   practical light tank almost impossible to build, and this class
   gradually disappeared over time.

   The seeds for a true transformation had already been working their way
   into existing designs. A combination of better suspensions and greatly
   improved engines allowed late-war medium tanks to outperform early-war
   heavies. With only slightly more armour and somewhat larger engines to
   compensate, mediums were suddenly protected against almost all
   anti-tank weapons, even those mounted on heavy tanks, while at the
   same time having the mobility of a medium tank. Many consider the
   turning point to be the Panther, which became the inspiration for
   almost every Western post-war tank design^[[184]citation needed]-
   although the Panther was not quite up to the gun power and armour
   protection standards of the early [185]Cold War.
   [186]Different tanks used by the German Armed Forces during the Cold
   War (M48A2C, Leopard 1A2, Leopard 2A4) 
   Different tanks used by the German Armed Forces during the Cold War
   ([187]M48A2C, [188]Leopard 1A2, Leopard 2A4)

   A highly successful post-war tank was the Soviet [189]T-54, which
   started production in 1947. This successor to the T-34 represented a
   direct evolution of Russian tank design principles, improving on its
   low profile, good armour, high mobility, and adding a 100 mm gun.

   Another new tank was the British [190]Centurion. Centurion marks built
   in the late 1940s were able to resist hits from the infamous German
   [191]88 mm gun, were ultimately armed with the deadly 105 mm
   [192]Royal Ordnance L7 gun, and could reach 35 mph (56 km/h) due to
   the excellent 650 hp (485 kW) [193]Rolls-Royce [194]Meteor engine (a
   derivative of the famous [195]Merlin. The Centurion replaced all
   British cruiser tanks and finally led to the demise of the infantry
   tank entirely, becoming what the British referred to as the Universal
   Tank, soon to be known as the [196]main battle tank (MBT) in most
   forces.

   In response to the threat of [197]antitank guided missiles (ATGMs),
   the focus in development shifted from armour thickness to armour
   technology. Gun technology remained remarkably similar even to WWI-era
   gun technology, with most tanks in service still being manually
   loaded, but with big advances in shell effectiveness.

   Although the basic roles and traits of tanks were almost all developed
   by the end of WWI, the performance of twenty-first-century
   counterparts had increased by an order of magnitude. They had been
   refined dramatically in response to continually changing threats and
   requirements, especially the threat of other tanks. The advancing
   capabilities of tanks have been balanced by developments of other
   tanks and by continuous development of anti-tank weapons.

[[198]edit] In the Iraq War

   As of 2005, there were 1,100 [199]M1 Abrams used by the [200]United
   States army in the course of the [201]Iraq War, and they have proven
   to have an unexpectedly high level of vulnerability to [202]roadside
   bombs.^[203][8] However, with upgrades to their armour in the rear,
   they have proven invaluable in fighting insurgents in urban combat (a
   role that tactics otherwise proscribe),^[204][9] particularly at the
   [205]Battle of Fallujah, where the Marines brought in two extra
   brigades.

[[206]edit] Design

   [207]A Russian T-90, in service with India. 
   A Russian [208]T-90, in service with [209]India.

   The three traditional factors determining a tank's effectiveness are
   its firepower, protection, and mobility. Also significant is shock
   action, the psychological effect of a tank's imposing battlefield
   presence on enemy soldiers.

   Firepower is the ability of a tank to identify, engage, and destroy a
   target. Protection is the tank's ability to resist being detected,
   engaged, and disabled or destroyed by enemy fire. Mobility includes
   tactical mobility over diverse terrain on the battlefield, as well as
   strategic mobility, the ability of the tank to be transported by road,
   rail, sea, and perhaps by air, to the battlefield.

   Tank design is traditionally held to be a compromise between these
   three factors--it is not considered possible to maximize all three.
   For example, increasing protection by adding armour will result in an
   increase in weight and therefore decrease mobility; increasing
   firepower by using a larger gun will decrease both mobility and
   protection (due to decreased armour at the front of the turret).

          Further information: [210]Tank classification

[[211]edit] Firepower

          Main article: [212]Tank gun

   [213]A US Medium Tank M4A3E8 tank fires from a prepared position
   during the Korean War. 
   A US [214]Medium Tank M4A3E8 tank fires from a prepared position
   during the [215]Korean War.

   A tank crew must be able to quickly identify, engage, and destroy many
   types of targets on the battlefield, while maintaining high mobility.
   To this end, they are equipped with sophisticated detection and
   fire-control equipment, a large gun capable of firing armour-piercing
   and high-explosive ammunition, and machine guns for defence against
   infantry, light vehicles, and aircraft.

   The main weapon of any modern tank is a single large [216]gun. Tank
   guns are among the largest-calibre weapons in use on land, with only a
   few [217]artillery pieces being larger. Although the calibre has not
   changed substantially since the end of the Second World War, modern
   guns are technologically superior. The current common sizes are 120 mm
   for Western tanks and 125 mm for Eastern (Soviet and Chinese legacy)
   tanks. [218]Tank guns have been able to fire many types of rounds, but
   their current use is commonly limited to [219]kinetic energy (KE)
   [220]penetrators and [221]high explosive (HE) rounds. Recent Russian
   and Chinese designed tanks can fire missiles, as well. [222]Smoothbore
   (rather than [223]rifled) guns are the dominant type today. The
   British and [224]Indian Armys are now the only ones to field main
   battle tanks carrying rifled guns. [225]Bore evacuators (fume
   extractors) have become a common feature.

   Modern tank guns are generally fitted with thermal jackets which
   reduce the effect of uneven temperature. For instance, if it were to
   rain on a tank barrel, the top would cool faster than the bottom, or a
   breeze on the left might cause the left side to cool faster than the
   right. This uneven cooling will cause the barrel to bend slightly and
   will affect long range accuracy.
   [226]Close-up of a hull-mounted machinegun. 
   Close-up of a hull-mounted [227]machinegun.

   Usually, tanks carry other armament for short range defence against
   infantry or targets where the use of the main weapon would be
   ineffective or wasteful. Typically, this is a 7.62 mm to 12.7 mm
   machine gun, mounted [228]coaxially with the main gun. However, a
   couple of French tanks (such as the [229]AMX-30 and AMX-40) carry a
   coaxial 20 mm with a high rate of fire, able to destroy lightly
   armoured vehicles. Additionally, many tanks carry a roof-mounted or
   commander's [230]cupola machine gun for close-in ground or limited air
   defence. The .50in (12.7 mm) and 14.5 mm (.57in) machine guns commonly
   carried on [231]U.S. and [232]Russian tanks and the French
   [233]Leclerc are also capable of destroying lightly-armoured vehicles
   at close range.

   Some tanks have been adapted to specialised roles and have had unusual
   main armament such as [234]flame-throwers. These specialised weapons
   are now usually mounted on the chassis of an [235]armoured personnel
   carrier.

[[236]edit] Fire control

   Historically, the tank's main gun is generally fired by 'direct fire',
   in which its weapons were aimed through simple optical [237]sights and
   laid onto target by hand, with windage estimated or assisted with a
   [238]reticle (markings in the gun sight which are aligned to frame an
   object of known size, in this case a tank) to estimate the range to
   the target. Consequently, accuracy was limited at long range and
   concurrent movement and accurate shooting were largely impossible.
   Over time these sights were replaced with [239]stereoscopic
   rangefinders, and later by [240]laser range-finders.
   [241]German Bundeswehr Leopard 2A5. 
   [242]German Bundeswehr Leopard 2A5.

   Most modern main battle tanks in the armies of industrialised
   countries still utilize "direct fire", but deploy laser range-finders.
   However, some optical and reticle range-finders are still in use in
   older and less sophisticated vehicles. Modern tanks have a variety of
   sophisticated [243]systems to make them more accurate. [244]Gyroscopes
   are used to stabilise the main weapon; [245]computers calculate the
   appropriate [246]elevation and aim-point, taking input from sensors
   for wind speed, air temperature, humidity, the gun-barrel temperature,
   warping and wear, the speed of the target (calculated by taking at
   least two sightings of the target with the range-finder), and the
   movement of the tank. [247]Infrared or light-amplification [248]night
   vision equipment is also commonly incorporated. [249]Laser target
   designators may also be used to illuminate targets for [250]guided
   munitions. As a result, modern tanks can fire with reasonable accuracy
   while on the move.

[[251]edit] Ammunition

   Tanks traditionally fire fixed ammunition, contrasting with
   artillery's three piece ammunition (separate projectile, powder
   charge, and primer). Whereas artillery fires general service
   ammunition such as high explosive for general support, tanks, although
   capable of firing the same type of ammunition, generally fire
   armor-defeating projectiles such as [252]high explosive squash head
   (HESH, also called high explosive plastic, or HEP), [253]high
   explosive anti-tank (HEAT), and [254]kinetic energy penetrators (KEP,
   or armour-piercing discarding sabot, APDS). For accuracy, projectiles
   are spun by gun-barrel [255]rifling, or fin-stabilised (APFSDS,
   HEAT-FS, etc.).

   Some tanks, including the [256]M551 Sheridan, [257]T-72, [258]T-64,
   [259]T-80, [260]T-84, [261]T-90, [262]T-96, and [263]PT-91, can fire
   [264]ATGMs (anti-tank guided missile) through their gun barrel or from
   externally mounted launchers. This functionality can extend the
   effective combat range of the tank beyond the range afforded by
   conventional shells, depending on the capabilities of the ATGM system.
   It also provides the tank with a useful weapon against slow,
   low-flying airborne targets like helicopters. The United States has
   abandoned this concept, phasing out the M551 and M60A2, but [265]CIS
   countries continue to employ gun-missile systems in their main battle
   tanks.

[[266]edit] Protection

   [267]Sections of the side-skirt are swung aside on this M1 Abrams to
   expose the track so that a road wheel can be replaced. 
   Sections of the side-skirt are swung aside on this M1 Abrams to expose
   the track so that a road wheel can be replaced.
   [268]An M1 Abrams tank on lookout. Heat haze from the turbine engine
   can be seen to the rear. 
   An [269]M1 Abrams tank on lookout. Heat haze from the turbine engine
   can be seen to the rear.

   A tank's protection is the combination of its ability to avoid
   detection, to avoid being hit by enemy fire, its armour to resist the
   effects of enemy fire, and to sustain damage and complete its mission,
   or at least protect its crew.

[[270]edit] Avoiding detection

   Stationary tanks can be well-[271]camouflaged in woodland and forested
   areas where there is natural cover, making detection and attack from
   the air more difficult. By contrast, in the open it is very hard to
   conceal a tank. In both cases, once a tank starts its engine or begins
   to move it can be detected much more easily due to the [272]thermal
   signature and noise generated by its engine. The tank tracks across
   lands can be spotted from the air, and in the desert movement can stir
   up dust clouds several times the size of the tanks.

   A recently-stopped stationary tank has a considerable heat signature.
   Indeed even if the tank itself is hidden, for example behind a hill,
   it is still possible for a skilled operator to detect the tank from
   the [273]column of warmer air above the tank. This risk can be reduced
   somewhat by the use of thermal blankets which reduce the radiation of
   heat while the engine and tracks cool. Some camouflage nets are
   manufactured from unevenly distributed mix of materials with differing
   thermal properties, which are designed to "randomise" or at least
   reduce the regularity of the thermal signature of a tank.

   Tanks are powered by a diesel or turbine engine of a power comparable
   to a diesel [274]locomotive. From the outside a diesel powered tank
   smells, sounds, and feels quite like a diesel locomotive. The deep
   rumble of even a single tank can be heard a great distance on a quiet
   day, and the sharp diesel smell can be carried far downwind. When a
   tank stands still with engine running the land trembles around it.
   When moving, the vibrations are greater. The acoustic and seismic
   signatures of [275]multi-fuel engines are comparable. The acoustic
   signature of a turbine engine is much greater: its high-pitched whine
   can be much more easily distinguished from other sounds, near or far.

   The very large power output of modern tank engines (typically in
   excess of 750 [276]kW or 1,000 [277]hp) causes a distinct thermal
   signature. The unusually compact mass of metal of the tank hull
   dissipates heat in a fashion which marks it off sharply from other
   objects in the countryside. A moving tank is thus relatively easy to
   spot by good land-based or aerial thermal infrared scanners. One
   reason for the one-sided fighting during [278]Operation Desert Storm
   was that tanks like the US M1 Abrams and the British Challenger had
   almost four times the night-time infrared scanning range of the older
   [279]T-72s used by the Iraqi army. Another factor in Desert Storm was
   that, even when camouflaged and not moving, Iraqi tanks at night would
   cool at a different rate from their surroundings, making thermal
   detection easier.

   Getting a tank to move proved to be important in the [280]Kosovo
   conflict in 1999. During the initial few weeks of the conflict NATO
   air sorties were rather ineffective in destroying [281]Serbian tanks.
   This changed in the final week of the conflict, when the [282]Kosovo
   Liberation Army began to engage tanks. Although the KLA had little
   chance of destroying the tanks, their purpose was to get the tanks to
   move whereupon they could be more easily identified and destroyed by
   NATO air power. But even this proved ineffective, as the Serbian army
   had few tank losses on its side, while the KLA suffered heavy infantry
   losses.^[283][10]

[[284]edit] Armour

          Main article: [285]Vehicle armour

   [286]Abandoning a disabled M-3 tank in training. 
   Abandoning a disabled M-3 tank in training.

   The main battle tank is the most heavily armoured vehicle in modern
   land armed corps. Its armour is designed to protect the vehicle and
   crew against a wide variety of threats. Commonly, protection against
   kinetic energy penetrators fired by other tanks is considered the most
   important. Tanks are also vulnerable to anti-tank missiles; anti-tank
   [287]mines, larger [288]bombs, direct [289]artillery hits, and
   [290]NBC (nuclear, bacteriological, chemical) threats, which can
   disable or destroy them. Tanks are especially vulnerable to overhead
   attack. Most modern MBTs do offer near complete protection from
   artillery fragmentation and lighter anti-tank weapons such as
   [291]rocket propelled grenades (RPGs). The amount of armour needed to
   protect against all conceivable threats from all angles would be far
   too heavy to be practical, so when designing an MBT much effort goes
   into finding the right balance between protection and weight.

   Most armoured fighting vehicles are manufactured of hardened steel
   plate, or in some cases aluminium. The relative effectiveness of
   armour is expressed by comparison to [292]rolled homogeneous armour.

   Most armoured vehicles are best-protected at the front, and their
   crews always try to keep them pointed toward the likeliest direction
   of the enemy. The thickest and best-sloped armour is on the
   [293]glacis plate and the turret front. The sides have less armour,
   while the rear, belly and roof are least protected.

   Before the Second World War, several tank designers tried [294]sloped
   armour on new tank designs. The most famous and successful example of
   this approach at the time was the T-34. Angling armour greatly
   increases its effectiveness against projectiles, by increasing its
   effective perpendicular thickness (which however offers no weight
   advantage), and by increasing the chance of deflection. German tank
   crews were said to be horrified to find shots fired at T-34s would
   sometimes simply ricochet.

   During World War II, aircraft [295]rockets earned a formidable
   reputation, especially in France after the [296]Normandy landings
   ([297]Operation NEPTUNE); post-war analysis, however, revealed many
   reported kills were near-misses. Aircraft cannon firing
   armour-piercing ammunition, such as the [298]Hurribomber's 40 mm or
   [299]Stuka's 37 mm, could be effective, also.

   Today, tanks are vulnerable to specialised top-attack missile weapons
   and air attack, as well as specialised mines. Even light infantry
   anti-tank weapons however can immobilise a tank by damaging its
   suspension or track. Many tracked military vehicles have side skirts,
   intended to protect the suspension.

   High explosive anti-tank (HEAT) warheads, such as those of the
   [300]bazooka or [301]Panzerfaust, were a new threat in the Second
   World War. These used a [302]shaped charge, which focuses the force of
   an explosion into a narrow penetrating stream. Thin plates of
   [303]spaced armour, steel mesh "RPG screens", or rubber skirts, caused
   HEAT rounds to detonate further from the main armour, greatly reducing
   their penetrating power (technically, it increased the "standoff
   distance").

   Some anti-tank ammunition (HESH or HEP) uses flexible explosive
   material which squashes against a vehicle's armour and causes
   dangerous [304]spalling of material inside the tank when the charge
   explodes. This may kill the crew without penetrating the armour, still
   neutralising the tank. As a defence, some vehicles have a layer of
   anti-spall material lining their insides.

   Since the 1970s, some tanks have been protected by more complex
   [305]composite armour, a sandwich of various [306]alloys and
   [307]ceramics. One of the best types of passive armour is the
   British-developed [308]Chobham armour, which is comprised of spaced
   [309]ceramic blocks contained by a [310]resin-[311]fabric matrix
   between layers of conventional armour.

   The Israeli [312]Merkava takes tank design for crew protection to an
   extreme, using the engine and fuel tanks as secondary protection.

   When the armour is defeated, the ability of the surviving crew to
   escape becomes an issue. The provision of escape hatches in, for
   instance, the bottom of the hull, as in the T-34, or the side, as in
   the Churchill, are necessary potential weaknesses in the armour.

[[313]edit] Passive defenses

   Most armoured vehicles carry smoke [314]grenade launchers which can
   rapidly deploy a [315]smoke screen to visually shield a withdrawal
   from an enemy ambush or attack. This is very rarely used offensively,
   since attacking through it blocks the attacker's vision and gives the
   enemy an early indication of impending attack. Modern smoke
   [316]grenades work in the infrared as well as [317]visible spectrum.

   Some smoke grenades are designed to make a very dense cloud capable of
   interfering with enemy laser target designators or rangefinders as
   well as obscuring vision, reducing probability of a hit from
   visually-aimed weapons, especially low velocity weapons, such as
   anti-tank missiles which require the operator to keep the tank in
   sight for a relatively long period of time. In many MBTs, such as the
   French Leclerc, smoke grenade launchers are also meant to launch
   [318]tear gas grenades and anti-personnel fragmentation grenades. Many
   Israeli tanks contain small vertical [319]mortar tubes which can be
   operated from within the tank, enhancing the anti-personnel
   capabilities and allowing it to engage targets which are behind
   obstacles. This idea first appeared in German tanks during WWII and
   there have been proposals to equip other tanks with dual-purpose
   smoke/fragmentation grenade launchers that can be reloaded from the
   interior.

   Prior to the widespread introduction of [320]thermal imaging, the most
   common smoke grenade in AFV launchers was [321]white phosphorus which
   created a very rapid smoke screen as well as having a very useful
   incendiary effect against any infantry in the burst area (e.g.,
   infantry attempting to close with hand-placed charges or mines).

   Since the advent of thermal imagers, most tanks carry a smoke grenade
   that contains a plastic or rubber compound whose tiny burning
   fragments provide better obscurant qualities against thermal imagers.

   Some tanks also have smoke generators which can generate smoke
   continuously, rather than the instantaneous, but short duration of
   smoke grenades. Generally smoke generators work by injecting fuel into
   the exhaust, which partially burns the fuel, but leaves sufficient
   unburned or partially burned particles to create a dense smoke screen.

   Modern tanks are increasingly being fitted with passive defensive
   systems such as laser warning devices, which activate an alarm if the
   tank is "painted" by a laser range-finder or designator.

   Other passive defences include radio warning devices, which provide
   warning if the tank is targeted by radar systems that are commonly
   used to guide antitank weapons such as millimetre and other very short
   wave radar.

[[322]edit] Countermeasures

   Passive countermeasures, like the Russian [323]Shtora system, attempt
   to jam the guidance systems of incoming guided missiles.

   [324]Explosive reactive armour, or ERA, is another major type of
   protection against [325]high explosive antitank weapons, in which
   sections of armour explode to dissipate the focused explosive force of
   a [326]shaped charge warhead. Reactive armour is attached to the
   outside of an MBT in small, replaceable bricks.

   [327]Active protection systems go one step further. An APS uses radar
   or other sensing technology to automatically react to incoming
   projectiles. When the system detects hostile fire, it calculates a
   firing solution and directs an explosive-launched counter-projectile
   to intercept or disrupt the incoming fire a few metres from the
   target.

   Both types of armour are potentially dangerous for friendly infantry
   operating in close support.

[[328]edit] Exposed crew

   [329]An Australian Sentinel tank during trials in 1942. Note the
   commander's lack of protection. 
   An Australian [330]Sentinel tank during trials in 1942. Note the
   commander's lack of protection.

   Paradoxically, a tank is usually in its safest state when the
   commander is in a personally unsafe position, riding in the open, head
   out of the turret. In this rather high position (often called
   'unbuttoned'), with no personal protection save maybe a [331]helmet
   and a [332]flak jacket, the commander can see around the vehicle with
   no restrictions, and has the greatest chance of spotting enemy
   antitank operations or natural and artificial obstacles which might
   immobilise or slow down the tank. Also, the tank itself is less
   visible as it can stay lower behind obstacles.

   Using [333]periscopes and other viewing devices gives a commander much
   inferior field of vision and sense of the countryside. Thus, when a
   tank advances in hostile territory with hatches closed, the commander
   and the crew might be personally safer, but the tank as a whole is
   more at risk given the extremely reduced vision. In order to overcome
   this problem, improvements in onboard optical systems are ongoing.

   Due to the limitations of the 'closed hatch', many World War II tank
   commanders of all sides fought their tanks with open hatches.
   Sometimes this was even standard operating procedure.^[334][11]

[[335]edit] Mobility

   Mobility of a tank is categorised as battlefield mobility, tactical
   mobility, or strategic mobility. The first is a function of its engine
   performance and capability of its running gear and is determined by
   aspects such as acceleration, speed, vertical obstacle capability and
   so on. This is what tankers and tank designers call 'agility'. The
   second is the ability of the tank to be readily transported within a
   theatre of operation. It depends from its operational range, what
   bridges it can cross, and what transport vehicles can move it. The
   third is its ability to be transported from one theatre of operation
   to other, dependent on its weight, air portability and so on.
   [336]A Leclerc crossing a gap. 
   A [337]Leclerc crossing a gap.
   [338]T-72 Ajeya of the Indian Army fitted with reactive armour during
   an exercise. 
   [339]T-72 Ajeya of the Indian Army fitted with [340]reactive armour
   during an exercise.

   A main battle tank is designed to be highly mobile and able to tackle
   most types of [341]terrain. Its tracks disperse the heavy weight of
   the vehicle over a large area, resulting in a specific ground pressure
   that might be lower than a man's foot.^[[342]citation needed] The
   types of terrain that do pose a problem are usually extremely soft
   ground such as [343]swamps, or rocky terrain scattered with large
   [344]boulders. In "normal" terrain, a tank can be expected to travel
   at about 20 to 30 mph (30 to 50 km/h). The [345]road speed may be up
   to 43mph (70 km/h).

   The logistics of getting from point A to point B are not as simple as
   they appear. On paper, or during any test drive of a few hours, a
   single tank offers better [346]off-road performance than any wheeled
   fighting vehicle. On the road the fastest tank design is not much
   slower than the average wheeled fighting vehicle design. In practice,
   the huge weight of the tank combined with the relative weakness of the
   track assembly makes the maximum road speed of a tank really a burst
   speed, which can be kept up for only a short time before there is a
   mechanical breakdown. Although the maximum off-road speed is lower, it
   cannot be kept up continuously all day long, given the variety and
   unpredictability of off-road terrain (with the possible exception of
   [347]plains and sandy [348]deserts).

   Since an immobilised tank is an easy target for mortars,
   [349]artillery, and the specialised [350]tank hunting units of the
   enemy forces, speed is normally kept to a minimum, and every
   opportunity is used to move tanks on wheeled [351]tank transporters
   and by [352]railway instead of under their own power. Tanks invariably
   end up on railcars in any country with a rail infrastructure, because
   no army has enough wheeled transporters to carry all its tanks.
   Planning for railcar loading and unloading is crucial staff work, and
   railway [353]bridges and yards are prime targets for enemy forces
   wishing to slow a tank advance.

   When moving in a country or region with no rail infrastructure and few
   good roads, or a place with roads riddled by mines or frequent
   [354]ambushes, the average speed of advance of a tank unit in a day is
   comparable to a man on a [355]horse or [356]bicycle. Frequent halts
   must be planned for [357]preventive maintenance and verifications in
   order to avoid breakdowns during combat. This is in addition to the
   tactical halts needed so the [358]infantry or the air units can scout
   ahead for the presence of enemy antitank groups.

   Another mobility issue is getting the tank to the theatre of
   operations. Tanks, especially main battle tanks, are extremely heavy,
   making it very difficult to [359]airlift them. Using sea and ground
   transportation is slow, making tanks problematic for [360]rapid
   reaction forces.

   Some [361]tank-like vehicles use wheels instead of tracks in order to
   increase road speed and decrease maintenance needs. These vehicles
   lack the superior off-road mobility of tracked vehicles, but are
   considered by United States planners as more suited for rapid reaction
   forces due to increased strategic mobility.^[[362]citation needed]

[[363]edit] Water operations

   For most tanks, water operations are limited to fording. The fording
   depth is usually limited to the height of the air intake of the
   engine, and to a lesser extent the driver's position. The typical
   fording depth for MBTs is 90-120 cm. (3-4 ft).

[[364]edit] Deep fording

   [365]A T-90, engine snorkel erected. 
   A [366]T-90, engine snorkel erected.

   However, with preparation some tanks are able to ford considerably
   deeper waters. The German Leopard I and Leopard II tanks can ford to a
   depth of several meters, when properly prepared and equipped with a
   [367]snorkel. The Leopard snorkel is in fact a series of rings which
   can be stacked to create a long tube. This tube is then fitted to the
   crew commander's hatch and provides air and a possible escape route
   for the crew. The height of the tube is limited to around three
   meters.

   All modern Soviet/Russian tanks are also able to perform deep fording
   operations, however unlike the Leopard, the Russian snorkel is only a
   few inches round and does not provide a crew escape path, although it
   is more practical and can be stored on the tank.

   This type of fording requires careful preparation of the tank and the
   ingress and egress sites on the banks of the water obstacle. Tank
   crews usually have a negative reaction towards deep fording. This has
   influenced tactics in those countries where the psychological health
   of the crews or their capacity for rebellion is taken into account.
   However, if properly planned and executed this type of operation adds
   considerable scope for surprise and flexibility in water crossing
   operations.

[[368]edit] Amphibious tanks

   [369]Sherman DD (Duplex Drive) amphibious tank with waterproof float
   screens, in 1944. The floatation screen was raised in the water and
   rear propellers provided forward thrust. 
   Sherman DD (Duplex Drive) amphibious tank with waterproof float
   screens, in 1944. The floatation screen was raised in the water and
   rear propellers provided forward thrust.

   Some light tanks such as the [370]PT-76 are [371]amphibious, typically
   being propelled in the water by [372]hydrojets or by their tracks. In
   1969, the U.S. Army rushed the new [373]M551 Sheridan to Vietnam. This
   17 ton light tank was built with an aluminium hull, steel turret and
   gun (although the 152 mm gun was called a "launcher" at the time), and
   could swim across bodies of water. Because the U.S. Army had done away
   with the old heavy, medium, and light tank classifications prior to
   the Vietnam War, and had adopted the Main Battle Tank (MBT) system,
   the M551 was officially classified as an Airborne Reconnaissance
   Assault Vehicle. The M551 upon arrival in Vietnam began replacing the
   [374]M48A3 Patton in all cavalry squadrons, leaving only the M48A3 in
   the U.S. Army's three armored battalions in Vietnam, the 1/77th,
   1/69th, and the 2/34th Armor. However, the 11th Armored Cavalry
   Regiment did retain some M48s, as they were the only full regiment in
   country. Armor Crewmen Trainees at the U.S. Army's Armor School at
   Fort Knox Kentucky, at the time of the Sheridan entering service, were
   specifically instructed to refer to the Sheridan by its designated
   nomenclature. However, for nearly everyone today, civilian and
   military alike, the Sheridan is a "light tank." The Sheridan needed no
   modifications for river crossings, crewmen simply raised the cloth
   sides that were tucked inside rubber tubes along the hull's upper
   edges, raised the driver's front shield which had a [375]acrylic glass
   window, the driver turned on his bilge pumps, shifted his transmission
   lever to water operations and the Sheridan entered the water. For
   newly arrived Sheridans, this might work as engineered. For "war
   weary" M551s, the driver's window was often "yellowed" and/or cracked
   as to obscure his vision, and the rubber tubes that contained the
   rolled up side sleeves were often cracked and/or frozen into place.
   The Sheridan could still cross a body of water, but like its swimming
   cousin, the M113 APC (Armoured Personnel Carrier, also built of
   aluminium) the river had to be narrow, less than 100 yards (100 m). In
   all cases, the bilge pumps had to be working properly, and even then
   by the time the Sheridan or the APC reached the other side, water
   would often fill the insides up to their armoured roofs, spilling
   through the hatches' cracks and emptying onto the earth once safely
   ashore. Often a fold down trim vane is erected to stop water washing
   over the bow of the tank and thus reducing the risk of the vehicle
   being swamped via the driver's hatch.

   In World War II the [376]M4 Medium tank (named Sherman by the British)
   was made amphibious with the addition of a rubberized canvas screen to
   provide additional buoyancy. It was propelled by propellers driven by
   the main engine. This was referred to as the [377]Sherman DD (Duplex
   Drive) and was used on [378]D-Day to provide close fire support on the
   beaches during the initial landings. The Sherman DD could not fire
   when afloat as the buoyancy screen was higher than the gun. A number
   swamped and sank in the operation, due to rough weather in the
   [379]English Channel (with some tanks having been launched too far
   out), and to turning in the current to converge on a specific point on
   the battlefield, which allowed waves to breach over the screens. Those
   making it ashore, however, provided essential fire support in the
   first critical hours.

[[380]edit] Power plants

   [381]An M1 Abrams engine undergoing maintenance, with the turret
   turned sideways to expose the engine deck. 
   An [382]M1 Abrams engine undergoing maintenance, with the turret
   turned sideways to expose the engine deck.

   The tank's power-plant supplies power for moving the tank and for
   other tank systems, such as rotating the turret or electrical power
   for a radio. Tanks fielded in WWI mostly used petrol (gasoline)
   engines as power-plants, unlike the American Holt Gas-Electric tank
   which was powered by both a petrol and an electric engine. In the
   Second World War, a mix of power-plant types were used; many were
   adapted from aircraft engines. As the Cold War started, tanks had
   almost all switched to diesel, improved [383]multi-fuel versions of
   which are still common. Starting in the late 1970s, [384]gas turbines
   began to appear.

   The weight and type of power-plant (influenced by its
   [385]transmission and [386]drive train) largely determines how fast
   and mobile the tank is, but the terrain effectively limits the maximum
   speed of all tanks through the stress it puts on the suspension and
   the crew.

[[387]edit] Multi-fuel diesels

   All modern non-turbine tanks use a [388]diesel engine because
   [389]diesel [390]fuel is less flammable and more economical than
   gasoline. Some Soviet tanks used the smoke of burning diesel as an
   advantage and could intentionally burn fuel in the exhaust to create
   smoke for cover. Fuel tanks are commonly placed at the rear of the
   tank, though in some designs, such as the [391]Israeli Merkava, the
   diesel fuel tanks are placed around the crew area to provide an
   additional layer of protection. Fuel has often been stored in
   auxiliary tanks externally, or by other means such as in a small
   trailer towed behind the tank, able to be detached during combat.

   Modern tank engines are in some cases multi-fuel engines, which can
   operate on diesel, petrol or similar fuels.

[[392]edit] Gas turbines

   Gas turbine engines have been used as [393]auxiliary power units
   (APUs) in some tanks, and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian
   [394]T-80s and U.S. [395]M1 Abrams. They are comparatively lighter and
   smaller than diesels at the same sustained power output. However, they
   are much less fuel efficient, especially at low revs, requiring more
   fuel to achieve the same combat range. Different models of M1 have
   addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to
   power the tank's systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the
   need to idle the main turbine. T-80s can mount three large external
   fuel drums to extend their range. Russia has stopped production of the
   T-80 in favour of the diesel-powered T-90 (based on the T-72), while
   Ukraine has developed the diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly
   the power of the gas-turbine tank.

   Because of their lower efficiency, the thermal signature of a gas
   turbine is higher than a diesel engine at the same level of power
   output. On the other hand, the acoustic signature of a tank with a
   muffled gas turbine can be quieter than a piston engine-powered one.
   The M1A2 was nicknamed 'Whispering Death' for its quiet
   operation.^[396][12]

   A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a
   piston-based engine, since it has a simpler construction with fewer
   moving parts. In practice, however, those parts experience a higher
   wear due to their higher working speeds. The turbine blades are also
   very sensitive to dust and fine sand, so that in desert operations
   special filters have to be carefully fitted and changed several times
   daily. An improperly fitted filter, or a single bullet or piece of
   shell fragment can render the filter useless, potentially damaging the
   engine. Piston engines also need well-maintained filters, but they are
   more resilient if the filter does fail.

   Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are
   usually multi-fuel engines.

[[397]edit] Command, control and communications

   Commanding and coordinating a tank organisation in the field has
   always been subject to particular problems. Because of the isolation
   of [398]small units, individual vehicles, and even the crewmen of a
   tank, special arrangements have had to be made. Armoured bulkheads,
   engine noise, intervening terrain, dust, and smoke, and the need to
   operate "hatches down" (or "buttoned up") comprise severe detriments
   to communications.

[[399]edit] Internal communications

   Every action of a tank's crew, movement and fire, is ordered by its
   commander. In some early tanks, the tank commander's task was severely
   hampered by having to load or fire the main armament, or both. In many
   small armoured fighting vehicles, even into the late twentieth
   century, the tank commander would relay movement orders to the driver
   by kicks to his shoulders and back. Most modern AFVs are equipped with
   an [400]intercom, allowing all crewmen to talk to each other, and to
   operate the [401]radio equipment. Some tanks have even been equipped
   with an external intercom on the rear, to allow co-operating infantry
   to talk to the crew.
   [402]German Army Leopard 2A6M (2007) 
   [403]German Army Leopard 2A6M (2007)

[[404]edit] Tactical communications

   In the earliest tank operations, communications between the members of
   an armoured company were accomplished using hand signals or handheld
   [405]semaphore flags, and in some situations, by crewmen dismounting
   and walking to another tank. In World War One, situation reports were
   sent back to headquarters by releasing [406]carrier pigeons through
   vision slits. Signal flares, smoke, movement, and weapon fire are all
   used by experienced crews to coordinate their [407]tactics.

   From the 1930s to the '50s, most nations' armoured forces became
   equipped with radios, but visual signals are still used to reduce
   radio chatter. A modern tank is usually equipped with radio equipment
   allowing its crew to communicate on a company or battalion [408]radio
   network, and possibly to monitor a higher-level network, to coordinate
   with other arms of service. Company or battalion commanders' tanks
   usually have an additional radio. Communications on a busy network are
   subject to a set of formalised language rules called [409]radio voice
   procedure.

   Most armoured forces operate with the tank commander, and possibly
   other crewmen, "hatches up", for best possible [410]situational
   awareness. When taking fire, or in potential [411]NBC conditions, tank
   crews "button up" and only view the battlefield through vision slits
   or [412]periscopes, severely reducing their ability to acquire targets
   and perceive hazards. Since the 1960s, a tank's commander has had
   progressively more sophisticated equipment for target acquisition. In
   a main battle tank, the commander has his own panoramic sights (with
   night-vision equipment), allowing him to designate one or more new
   targets, while the gunner engages another. More advanced systems allow
   the commander to take control of the turret and fire the main armament
   in an emergency.

[[413]edit] Computerised advances

   A recent development in AFV equipment is the increased integration of
   fire control, the laser range-finder, [414]GPS data, and digital
   communications. U.S. tanks are fitted with digital computers which are
   connected into battlefield networks. These integrate known information
   on enemy targets and friendly units to greatly improve the tank
   commander's situational awareness. In addition to easing the reporting
   burden, these systems also allow for orders to be given complete with
   graphics and overlays, via the network.

          See also: [415]Military communications, [416]Command, control,
          and communications, and [417]C4ISTAR

[[418]edit] Vulnerability

          Main article: [419]Anti-tank warfare

   Despite being a powerful weapon and an impressive sight on the
   battlefield, the tank is vulnerable. In fact, the tank's basic
   effectiveness has led to massive development of anti-tank weapons and
   tactics. Some critics have noted that due to these developments, and
   the rising importance of [420]asymmetrical warfare, tanks have become
   too vulnerable to be worth the considerable cost they represent.

[[421]edit] Attacks

   Infantry

   Unsupported tanks are vulnerable to attacks by foot soldiers who
   manage to reach blind or weak spots (such as very close under the
   tank, or behind it). Tanks may be immobilised by explosives used
   against the tracks, or attacks through open hatches ([422]see above)).
   To protect themselves, tanks generally operate with [423]closely
   coordinated infantry support to protect them from enemy infantry.

   Artillery

   While tanks are mostly invulnerable to shell fragments, specialised
   anti-tank ammunition can make a well-positioned artillery piece deadly
   against opposing tanks (assuming the artillery can react quickly
   enough and depress low enough). Modern anti-tank artillery shells also
   include guided projectiles.

          See also: [424]Anti-tank guns

   Mines

   Anti-tank minefields and [425]landmines in general have a capability
   to pierce a tank's (relatively) thin bottom armour. In rare cases,
   even [426]IEDs (though of comparatively massive size) have been
   capable of actually destroying a modern tank.^[427][13]

   Aircraft

   Ground attack aircraft may use [428]heavy machine guns or [429]cannons
   as well as [430]rockets or [431]guided missiles against tanks, often
   aiming for the top armour, which again is (relatively) weak.
   [432]Attack helicopters, exploiting high mobility and the use of
   terrain for protection, and carrying guided missiles, have also become
   a mainstay of anti-tank tactics for many militaries.

[[433]edit] Logistics

   Tanks suffer a major drawback compared to wheeled vehicles like
   armoured cars, being mechanically more complicated and requiring far
   more maintenance. This places strains on an army's logistic system
   which may inhibit tank operations. In addition, design features may
   cause problems; the WW2 Panther, for instance, had interleaved
   [434]road wheels, which tended to clog in mud or snow, and required
   five wheels to be removed to change a single inner wheel, while other
   German tanks of the period had driven front sprockets, which added
   complexity compared to British ones which drove the rear sprockets.

[[435]edit] Climate

   Tanks can also be disabled by the weather: starter batteries,
   lubricants, and even engines may fail in extreme cold (during World
   War II campaigns in Russian winters, tanks were often kept running to
   prevent restart problems with frozen-solid engines). Engines and
   crew-members can also suffer from overheating during hot weather
   (partly combated in newer tanks by air-conditioning systems), or dust
   clogging important ducts.

[[436]edit] Terrain

   Tanks are also at a disadvantage in [437]wooded terrain and [438]urban
   combat environments, which negate the advantages of the tank's
   long-range firepower and its speed advantage over infantry, limit the
   crew's ability to detect potential threats, and can even limit the
   turret's ability to traverse. Some of these disadvantages have now
   been taken into account by special modifications for urban combat, and
   it should be noted urban operations create additional hazards for
   almost all unit types, with tanks often retaining a high survivability
   (especially against improvised and most man-portable weapons) by
   virtue of their armour.

[[439]edit] Research and development

          Main article: [440]Tank research and development

   Current research involves making the tank invisible to radar by
   adapting [441]stealth technologies originally designed for aircraft
   and a variety of luminosity and colour shaping technologies. Research
   is also ongoing in armour systems and new propulsion units.

   One clear trend is the increasing number of electrical and
   communication systems on a tank, such as [442]thermal imagers and
   higher powered radios.

[[443]edit] See also

   Wikimedia Commons has media related to:
   [444]Tank
   [445]Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to:
   [446]Tank

   Armoured warfare and tactics
     * [447]Armoured warfare
     * [448]Hull-down position
     * [449]Tank desant (infantry riding tanks into combat)

   Armoured fighting vehicles
     * [450]Armoured car
     * [451]Armoured engineering vehicle
     * [452]Hobart's Funnies (specialised [453]Invasion of Normandy
       tanks)
     * [454]Infantry fighting vehicle
     * [455]Tankette

   Classification- and list-type articles
     * [456]Armoured fighting vehicle classification
     * [457]Tank classification
     * [458]List of armoured fighting vehicles (includes tanks)
     * [459]List of main battle tanks by country

[[460]edit] Notes

    1. ^ [461]^a [462]^b [463]^c [464]^d [465]^e First World War -
       Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003
    2. [466]^ Ted Barris, Victory at Vimy: Canada Comes of Age April 9-12
       1917, Thomas Allen Publishers, 2007, p. 116
    3. [467]^ Sir Martin Gilbert, Churchill: A Life, Thomas Allen
       Publishers, 1991, p. 298
    4. [468]^ Dickson, Paul ([469]January 31, [470]2004). War Slang (in
       English). Brassey's, 102. [471]ISBN 1-57488-710-6.
    5. [472]^ Regan, Geoffrey. The Guinness Book of More Military
       Blunders (London: Guinness Publishing, 1993), p.12.
    6. ^ [473]^a [474]^b First World War - The Tank: New Developments -
       Willmott, H.P., Dorling Kindersley, 2003, Page 222
    7. ^ [475]^a [476]^b [477]^c [478]^d [479]Revolutions in military
       affairs: fact or fiction? - Pickering, W.L., Lieutenant-Colonel,
       [480]Canadian Army Journal, Vol. 2, No. 2, May 1999
    8. [481]^ [482]Tanks take a beating in Iraq - [483]USA Today, Posted
       [484]2005-[485]03-29.)
    9. [486]^ [487]Tanks adapted for urban fights they once avoided -
       [488]USA Today, Posted [489]2005-[490]03-29.)
   10. [491]^ [492]The KLA: braced to defend and control - [493]Jane's
       Intelligence Review, April 1999, via web.archive.org)
   11. [494]^ [495]Cliff Elliott Interview (the 'Spearhead Interviews'
       with WWII [496]Third Armored Spearhead Division veterans, private
       website)
   12. [497]^ Perry, Mark ([498]2003-[499]03-24). [500]'Whispering Death'
       Strikes. Sun Media Corporation. Retrieved on [501]2006-[502]09-10.
   13. [503]^ [504]Assessing the performance of Merkava Tanks - Col.
       Eshel, David; Col., [505]Defense Update

[[506]edit] References

     * Ogorkiewicz, Richard M. (1991). Technology of Tanks. Jane's
       Information Group, Coulsdon, Surrey. [507]ISBN 0-7106-0595-1.
     * Ogorkiewicz, Richard M.. Design and Development of Armored
       Fighting Vehicles.
     * Time Life Books editors (1990). The Armored Fist. Time-Life Books,
       Alexandria Va.. [508]ISBN 0-8094-8609-1; [509]ISBN 0-8094-8608-3;
       [510]ISBN 0-8094-8704-7; [511]ISBN 0-8094-8705-5.
     * Weeks, John (1975). Men Against Tanks: A History of Anti-Tank
       Warfare. Mason Charter, New York. [512]ISBN 0-88405-130-7;
       [513]ISBN 0-7153-6909-1 (British printing).
     * Macksey, Ken. Tank Warfare.
     * Forty, G. The world encyclopedia of Tanks. Lorenz Books, 2006.

[[514]edit] External links

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